譯者按
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- 原文存在多處引用和拼寫錯誤,此處予以更正,但為保持頁面簡潔,不會一一附註,敬請留意。
摘要
雌激素和孕酮是主要的女性激素。已知二者均在人生不同階段中對乳房發育有重要作用。至少自 1960 年代起,就有將孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者以促進乳房發育的猜測、實踐和傳言。已有少數幾項研究評價了孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者時的乳房發育情況;但對於其是否確有促進乳房發育的作用,現有證據質量不足,無法得出明確結論。與此類似,有關用於順性別女孩的孕激素及乳房發育情況的研究亦較有限。無論如何,當下有多項研究正在評價孕激素在乳房發育中的作用。
一些間接性證據亦可能揭示了孕激素有促進乳房發育的潛在作用:其中包括人體或動物在正常青春期、月經週期和妊娠期間,體內孕酮和乳房發育的關係。現有證據總體上不足以支持孕酮在青春期對乳房增長有決定性作用;但在妊娠期間,孕酮確實對乳腺小葉發育有明確、關鍵作用,而當泌乳、哺乳中止以後,妊娠帶來的乳房改變將會逆轉。在月經週期的黃體期內,孕酮可能還會引起可逆的乳房增大。
有結果表明,孕激素在乳房中可能有抗雌激素作用;如在激素治療開始時過早引入,其可能對乳房發育有不良影響。但是,尚需更多研究來評價這種可能性。無論如何,興許可以建議在雌激素介導的乳房發育基本或全部完成之前,延遲引入孕激素。
可用於女性傾向跨性別者的孕激素治療選項有:具備生物同質性的孕酮,和人工孕激素。但是,口服孕酮有明顯的生物利用度問題,不足以達到理想的孕酮水平。孕酮等孕激素均各自和重大健康風險有關,這是將其用於女性傾向跨性別者時需要着重考慮的。
綜上,基於現有認知,孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者不見得一定會促進乳房發育並持續;還需更多研究及數據來得出明確結論。
前言
在女性傾向跨性別者當中,常見乳房發育狀況(尺寸、形狀)不及預期的情況;羣體中存在對可促進乳房增長的醫療手段需求。人體有兩類主要的女性激素,分別是雌激素和孕激素。其中雌激素是女性化激素治療中幾乎最基本的用藥,而孕激素僅有一部分女性傾向跨性別者在應用;這裏主要應用的孕激素有生物同質性的孕酮,以及醋酸甲羥孕酮(MPA,一種人工孕激素)、有強孕激素作用的抗雄激素藥物醋酸環丙孕酮(CPA)。雌激素在女性中是引起女性化和乳房發育的主要介導物質;但是,孕激素在乳房中也發揮生理作用,而這種作用不一定是正向的。
在跨性別社羣中,關於孕激素和乳房發育的話題多年來一直在討論,且頗有爭議(Coleman et al., 2012)。將孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者以改善乳房發育的應用,至少可追溯到 1960 年代 Harry Benjamin 和 Christian Hamburger 的研究(Benjamin, 1966; Benjamin, 1967; Hamburger & Benjamin, 1969; 維基百科)。已有觀點肯定了孕激素在乳房發育中有潛在作用(例如 Bevan, 2012; Bellwether, 2019; Bevan, 2019),同時也有觀點否定之(例如 Curtis, 2009)。其中提到較多的是,對於順性別女性和女性傾向跨性別者,孕激素有助於乳房發育,甚而對完成乳房發育是必要的;還有人聲稱在女性傾向跨性別者青春期乳房發育過程中,需要孕激素實現從 Tanner 四期到五期的跨越,並使乳房更豐滿、更圓潤(例如 Vorherr, 1974a; Basson & Prior, 1998; Kaiser & Ho, 2015; Prior, 2011; Prior, 2019a; Prior, 2020)。更有甚者,認為乳房沒有孕激素就將一直保持尖錐形,形如早期 Tanner 階段。
有些人則走向另一個極端:他們聲稱“在生理男性身上不存在有生理功能的孕酮受體位點”,同時女性在青春期時、直至乳房發育完成都不分泌孕酮(Barrett, 2009; Seal, 2017; Coxon & Seal, 2018; Price, McManus, & Barrett, 2019; Richards & Barrett, 2020))。結果,他們在其著述中反對將孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者(Google 學術)。
總而言之,關於孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者的爭議由來已久,正反觀點都很突出(Sam, 2020)。
本文旨在對現有的、討論孕激素和乳房發育的直接或間接證據進行回顧,以便解讀孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者是否可促進乳房發育的問題。以現有認識看,孕激素在身體女性化過程中除了參與乳房發育,並沒有其它作用(例如 Coleman et al., 2012; Gooren, 2016);鑑於此,本文將聚焦於討論孕激素和乳房發育的關係,不會就整個女性化過程展開討論。
孕激素治療和人類乳房發育的關係
用於女性傾向跨性別者的孕激素治療和乳房發育情況
迄今僅有少量研究就孕激素治療用於女性傾向跨性別者時的乳房發育情況進行評價。有的研究運用生物同質的孕酮,有的則運用 MPA、CPA 等人工孕激素的一種。對現有的孕激素和女性傾向跨性別者乳房發育情況相關資料,本文亦作了一定回顧,參考論文有:Wierckx, Gooren, & T’Sjoen (2014);Reisman, Goldstein, & Safer (2019);Patel et al. (2020);Patel et al. (2022);Milionis, Ilias, & Koukkou (2022);Coleman et al. (2022);以及 Berliere et al. (2023)。
Orentreich & Durr (1974) 是最早的有關女性傾向跨性別者乳房發育的研究之一。在總計 5 名女性傾向跨性別者的病例系列中,研究者運用雌激素和孕激素組合以及性腺切除,以促成女性化和乳房發育。其中所用雌激素有肌注戊酸雌二醇 30 mg/兩週、口服結合雌激素 1.25–5.0 mg/天;所用孕激素有肌注“己酸甲羥孕酮 60 mg”每兩週、口服醋酸甲羥孕酮 0–10 mg/天。己酸甲羥孕酮(MPC)從未被批量生產,故推測原文系筆誤,實際應採用了 MPA 或己酸羥孕酮(OHPC)作為孕激素。
據論文作者報道,雌激素和孕激素治療對女性傾向跨性別者引起了輕度至明顯的乳房發育,效果與劑量沒有強相關性;作者還提供了對乳房的臨牀檢查照片。他們總結認為,研究中乳房發育情況和成年順性別婦女的基本一致。
Orentreich 及其同行還討論了乳腺小葉的成熟,這已知和孕激素相關;但他們表示了未進行組織學檢查,還透露從順性別婦女的資料可知,乳腺小葉發育的程度並非必然和臨牀上的乳房體積相關。
Orentreich 及同行的結果存在一些研究方法上的限制:包括缺乏客觀衡量方法、缺乏僅接受雌激素的對照組、樣本規模較小(女性傾向跨性別者共計僅 5 人)等等;因此從評價孕激素在乳房發育中的作用這個角度來説,這項研究的價值較為有限。
Meyer et al. (1986) 就雌激素治療中加用的孕激素對女性傾向跨性別者的乳房發育和其它臨牀特徵之影響進行研究。其中,60 名女性傾向跨性別者有 15 人(25%)給予口服孕激素,多為 10 mg/天的 MPA,且持續了“至少一段較短的時間”——僅 8 人(13.3%)在整個治療期內持續服用。在該研究早期的報告中提到,觀察期內有 90% 的時間以 10 mg/天的劑量給藥,其餘時間則為 20 mg/天(Meyer et al., 1981)。在 10 mg/天劑量下,MPA 的孕激素效力大致與黃體期孕酮暴露所致效力相當(維基百科)。研究中以乳房半圍來評價乳房發育狀況(示意圖)。
結果表明,孕激素治療未改變由雌激素促導的變化過程,包括實驗室檢驗結果、激素水平,以及體重、乳房增長等體徵。其中,激素水平未發生改變的結果與預期不符:在其它高質量研究中,MPA 對睾酮有明顯抑制作用(例如 Jain, Kwan, & Forcier, 2019; 維基百科)。
Meyer 及其同行總結認為,在雌激素之外加用孕激素應不會促進女性傾向跨性別者的乳房發育。但是,他們提到該研究中服用孕激素的個體數偏少,尚需進一步研究。
Prior et al. (1986) 和 Prior, Vigna, & Watson (1989) 將雌激素、高劑量螺內酯(100–600 mg/天)和 MPA(10–20 mg/天,序貫或連續服用)用於從未進行激素治療、或曾接受高劑量雌激素(和/或孕激素)但未合併螺內酯治療的女性傾向跨性別者,並進行研究。
研究者報告稱,依指定激素方案治療 12 個月後,乳房體積和乳頭髮育均有所增長。至研究結束前,大多數個體的乳房組織達到 A 罩杯,直徑約達 8–14 cm。影像記錄也作為乳房發育情況之評價的一部分進行。儘管乳房發育被報道有所改善,但據研究者的自述,難以確認其是否可歸因於螺內酯或 MPA。此外,對睾酮的抑制效果在研究開始前是不充分的,而後隨研究指定的激素方案有所改善;無論 MPA 是否對乳房有直接的孕激素作用,該方案都可能促進了乳房發育。最後,不能排除研究前由雌激素誘導的乳房發育尚未停止,而後僅靠雌激素本身便足以繼續促進乳房發育的可能性。
上述研究的第一作者 Jerilynn Prior 在其它著述中稱,孕酮有促進乳房發育的作用,並引用上述研究以支持其論點(Prior, 2011; Prior, 2019a; Prior, 2019b; Prior, 2020)。然而,上面討論的這些研究的侷限性使得其論點缺乏足夠根據。
Dittrich et al. (2005) 報告稱,經口服戊酸雌二醇合併促性腺激素釋放激素(GnRH)激動劑治療二年後,女性傾向跨性別者有 5% 報告乳房達到 C 罩杯或更大,30% 報告有 B 罩杯,35% 報告有 A 罩杯,其餘 30% 未達到 A 罩杯。但他們指出,有 70% 的個體對乳房發育情況不滿意,有意接受隆胸手術。
研究者聲稱,某些個體報告在研究開始前曾採用炔雌醇和 CPA 治療,而研究所用配方所促成的乳房體積增長等女性化效果與其相似。論文未透露其它細節。這個説法和本文要討論的有關,因為 CPA 在早期用於女性傾向跨性別者的劑量下有很強的孕激素作用(Aly, 2019)。但應當注意,該研究並未運用孕激素療法本身或對其研究。此外,自發報告具有很大主觀性,作為評價乳房發育和乳房體積的依據是欠妥的。因此,從理解孕激素和乳房發育關係的角度出發,這項研究結果價值如何是有待商榷的。
在乳房發育過程中,雌激素主要參與乳腺導管發育,而孕酮主要參與乳腺小葉/小泡的發育。Kanhai et al. (2000) 記錄了雌激素和 100 mg/天 CPA(即超高劑量孕激素)用於 14 名女性傾向跨性別者所引起的乳腺組織學變化,以及非甾體抗雄激素製劑(氟他胺或比卡魯胺)單藥用於 2 名患前列腺癌的順性別男性所引起的乳腺改變,並加以比較。這兩種療法均可阻斷雄激素,使雌激素水平升高,且均已知有較高几率促導乳房發育或男性乳腺增生。然而,這二者有一點不同:非甾體抗雄製劑單藥並不具備孕激素效力。
乳腺活體切片顯示,在女性傾向跨性別者當中,乳腺小葉發育充分;而在男性前列腺癌患者中,僅觀察到“中等程度”發育、即發育不充分的乳腺小葉。論文還指出,當女性傾向跨性別者接受性腺切除術,從而停用 CPA 之後,其乳腺小葉形成有退化傾向。研究者總結認為,有必要使乳房暴露於孕激素,以實現組織學意義上的完全發育;對於女性傾向跨性別者,如此可完全模擬成熟的女性乳腺組織形態。
該研究的結果雖引人注目,但其關注點侷限於組織形態,並未真正提供任何關於乳房發育的外觀資料。從這點來説,組織學上的差異可能不足以體現乳房體積或外形等性質的相對差異。因此,如要理解孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者時是否可實實在在地促進乳房發育,則該研究的參考價值是有限的。
Seal 及同行開展了一項回顧性 圖表調研,以評價面向女性傾向跨性別者的隆胸手術的臨牀預測因子(Seal et al., 2012)。其中,螺內酯的使用率在接受了隆胸手術的女性傾向跨性別者當中,要高於未接受手術者。對於醋酸環丙孕酮、5α-還原酶抑制劑、GnRH 類似物等其它特定的抗雄激素製劑,在接受手術者和未接受者之間,其使用率沒有明顯差別。
但是,其研究方法存在諸多侷限性,包括:進行 30 餘次未按多重比較修正的 t-檢驗,從而存在假陽性風險和 P 值篡改(p-hacking)的嫌疑;諸抗雄製劑各自的樣本規模較小;未實際對乳房或其體積進行物理測量,便以隆胸替代乳房發育過程;未就潛在干擾變量的控制進行相關性設計。綜上,該研究沒有表明各類抗雄製劑所引起的乳房發育效果有所差異,其結果須予以審慎看待。
Jain, Kwan, & Forcier (2019) 對經舌下含服的雌二醇和螺內酯(合併或不合並 MPA)用於 92 名女性傾向跨性別者的情況進行研究。其中,MPA 有兩種給藥方式:舌下含服 5–10 mg/天,或每三個月肌注 150 mg;接受 MPA 治療者有 39 人,其中 26 人(67%)報告乳房發育有所增長。論文雖未提供其餘細節,但可以認為其中對乳房發育的評價源自患者的主觀口述。
Igo & Visram (2021) 對在女性傾向跨性別者的激素療法中加用孕酮的情況進行研究。其中,孕酮以微粉化 100 mg 製劑(或為口服)的形式給藥;如患者主動要求,或患者表示對當前女性化和/或乳房發育效果不滿意,則給予孕酮。受試者共 190 人,其中 51 人(26.8%)接受孕酮治療。孕酮的初次給藥時間平均比雌二醇治療開始時要晚 12.7 個月;對激素治療的平均跟蹤時長為 14.3 個月。在服用孕酮的個體中,僅 6 人(11.8%)報告孕酮對乳房發育有益。論文雖未提供其餘細節,但和其它研究類似的是,其中對乳房發育效果的量化很可能也依賴於口述的自發報告。
綜上,這兩項研究顯然均未對乳房發育進行任何客觀評價,也未設置對照組以比較,故其結果的參考價值有限。
Nolan 及其同行則在一項前瞻性對照研究中,對正平穩接受激素治療的女性傾向跨性別者加用了低劑量口服微粉化孕酮,並評價了該形式的孕酮對乳房發育的短期影響(Nolan et al., 2022a; Nolan et al., 2022b)。其中,23 名女性傾向跨性別者給予孕酮 100 mg/天,持續三個月;其結果與由 19 名女性傾向跨性別者構成的對照組進行比較。乳房發育效果通過患者自發報告的 Tanner 發育階段進行評價,具體為患者從各個 Tanner 階段的照片中選擇一張上報。
治療三個月後,兩組報告的 Tanner 階段的差異沒有統計顯著性(孕酮組平均值 3.5,95% 置信區間 3.2–3.7;對照組平均值 3.6,95% 置信區間 3.3–3.9;P = 0.42)。該研究存在一項侷限性,即口服孕酮的生物利用度極低,在 100 mg/天劑量下,其僅可產生很低的孕酮水平,遠低於黃體期正常範圍(Aly, 2018a; 維基百科)。因此,在這項研究以及 Igo & Visram (2021) 等其他研究中,孕激素暴露很可能是不充分的。
除孕激素作用強度以外,該研究在方法上的重大侷限性還有:研究時長非常短(僅三個月);研究依賴於有主觀性的 Tanner 階段自發報告,而非較客觀的乳房外圍測量。無論如何,該研究從質量而言仍高於前述研究,且將來還有繼續研究並提供更長跟蹤期之結果的可能性。
Bahr et al. (2024) 在其診所內開展了一項回顧性圖表調研,將 29 名曾服用孕激素的女性傾向跨性別者和 59 名未服用者的情況加以比較。其中運用的孕激素有:口服或直腸給藥的孕酮,佔比 93%;肌注 MPA,佔比 7%。孕酮使用者中,有 25 人(93%)口服孕酮,另有 2 人(7%)以直腸給予孕酮膠囊。關於孕激素劑量,僅報道了 100 mg 孕酮膠囊的使用,其餘未見報道。孕激素使用者有大部分(59%)於常規激素治療開始後 1–6 個月起服用孕激素。
研究者發現,激素治療六個月後,孕激素使用者所自行報告的乳房發育滿意程度,相較未使用者有統計顯著性地更高(滿意程度分“滿意”“一般”“不滿意”三級,其中“滿意”的比例:53.8% 對 19.6%,p = 0.004);治療九個月後亦然(“滿意”比例:71.4% 對 20.8%,p = 0.003)。
該研究的侷限性有:缺乏對乳房發育的客觀測量手段,研究本身具有回顧性性質,沒有隨機化分配治療方案,等等。
前述研究之外,還有一批研究報告了雌激素和 CPA 用於女性傾向跨性別者時的乳房發育情況,其中大多采用較客觀的物理測量手段(如乳房體積、乳房—下胸圍差、乳房罩杯和乳房半圍等);但因缺乏對照組,沒有將含孕激素的激素治療和不含孕激素的治療進行比較。此外,CPA 還有一點跟其它孕激素不同:其用於女性傾向跨性別者的劑量特別高(Aly, 2019),相比近似於生理性的孕激素暴露,這可能會導致不一致、甚至不充分的乳房發育結局。因此,本章節沒有就此類研究展開討論,而在其它章節展開(詳見下文)。無論如何,這裏簡要概括這批研究的結果,即雌激素和 CPA 用於女性傾向跨性別者所引起的乳房發育大多不良;所載結局包括,乳房的 Tanner 分級均未達到完全成熟(2–4 級),罩杯較小,乳房體積較小,乳房尺寸較順性別婦女更小等等。
由於方法上的侷限性,前述研究的質量很不理想:例如,未設置對照組,未隨機分配受試者,依賴於低可信度手段(如主觀評價和自發報告)而非客觀的物理測量手段(維基百科),治療時長較短,樣本規模較小,等等。這可能解釋了以上研究的結論為何互相矛盾。
對於孕激素在女性傾向跨性別者中如何影響乳房發育,還需更多研究佐證;尤其需要開展隨機對照試驗(RCT),來比較含孕激素的女性化激素治療和不含孕激素者引起的乳房發育情況,還要有客觀的測量手段、有足夠大的樣本規模、有足夠長的跟蹤時長。另外諸如孕激素種類、給藥途徑、劑量、何時引入治療等變量,也是值得探究的。一份有關用於女性傾向跨性別者的激素治療、於 2014 年發表的評述,彙總了當時對孕激素和女性傾向跨性別者之乳房發育的研究情況,其結論至今依然成立(Wierckx, Gooren, & T’Sjoen, 2014):
我們對跨性別女性乳房發育的自然史,以及受不同跨性別激素療法有何影響的認識嚴重不足,且證據質量欠佳。目前的證據未證實孕激素用於跨性別女性可促進乳房發育,也不能證實這個作用不存在。因此,我們目前無法得出任何明確結論;這也表明尚需更多研究以釐清這些問題。
與此類似,多份綜述和指南均總結認為,沒有可靠證據表明將孕激素加入到女性傾向跨性別者的激素治療,對乳房發育有任何益處或不利(Wierckx, Gooren, & T’Sjoen, 2014; Reisman, Goldstein, & Safer, 2019; Patel et al., 2022; Milionis, Ilias, & Koukkou, 2022; Coleman et al., 2022; Berliere et al., 2023)。
目前正在開展的研究
目前已有多項針對孕酮和其它孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者的研究陸續開展。其中包括:
- 由 Sandeep Dhindsa 博士及其同行於美國密蘇里州聖路易斯市開展的,有關在激素治療中加用口服孕酮的一項隨機對照試驗(ClinicalTrials.gov; MediFind; ICH GCP);
- 由 Ada Cheung 及其同行於澳大利亞墨爾本開展的,有關口服孕酮用於激素治療的一項前瞻性、觀察性研究和/或 RCT(University of Melbourne; University of Melbourne);
- 同樣由 Ada Cheung 及其同行開展的,有關雌二醇—螺內酯複方和雌二醇—CPA 複方之對比的一項 RCT(ANZCTR; WHO ICTRP; Trans Health Research [傳單] [海報]; University of Melbourne)(參見後記一);
- 由 Martin den Heijer 及其同行於荷蘭阿姆斯特丹自由大學醫學中心(VUMC)開展的,有關不同劑量的口服孕酮用於激素治療的一項大型 RCT(Dijkman et al., 2023a; 彙總資料和鏈接; 資料單荷蘭語原文; 資料單英譯文)。
但遺憾的是,以上研究所用孕酮均以口服給藥,而此用途在生物利用度和效力上存在重大缺陷(Aly, 2018a; 維基百科)。不管怎樣,據聞 VUMC 的研究者有意開展後續試驗,對其它途徑給藥的孕酮進行研究(彙總資料和鏈接)。以上研究有望就孕激素是否對女性傾向跨性別者的乳房發育有臨牀收益的問題提供更多視角。
孕激素在順性別女性中對乳房發育的作用
目前為止,能夠就孕酮或其它孕激素對順性別女性乳房發育之作用提供有用線索的研究基本為零。從零星的文獻中,幾乎只能找到幾個簡要的、互相矛盾的臨牀經驗片段。有些討論孕激素在因性腺發育不良引起青春期延遲或無青春期的順性別女孩和婦女當中用於青春期的誘導,在此一一摘錄:
筆者(…)對三名乳房發育不足、且有明顯性腺發育不良徵象的女性進行研究。
(…)
以 30 日為一個週期,每日給予 5 個國際單位的黃體素單藥,未引起可測出的乳房改變。這與 Turner2、Corner3 動物模型以及其它模型實驗的觀察結果一致。但當對患者每日注射 1 個國際單位的孕酮、20,000–50,000 個國際單位的雌酮或苯甲酸雌二醇時,乳房增長速率高於雌激素單藥治療。黃體素和孕激素的合用引起了更實在的乳房增長,觸診時乳腺小葉清楚可辨;而雌激素單藥引起的增長更緩和,乳腺組織邊緣較難分辨。終止激素注射後,出現了乳房尺寸的快速衰減,但聯合治療組的衰減更慢。[MacBryde (1939)]
有專家認為,在雌激素治療週期的後半段加用孕激素,可引起更佳的乳房發育(Capraro, 1971)。Shearman (1971) 在其病例中採用了連續治療。但是 Huffman (1971) 認為加用孕激素沒有任何收益。 [Dewhurst (1971a)]
孕酮對人類乳房的作用尚不明確。儘管多人聲稱其可引起乳腺發育,但相關證據薄弱(Benson et al 1959)。 [Shearman (1972a)]
雖然不少人服用雌激素單藥,但每月加用一種孕激素並持續 6 天或 10 天時,有明顯更好的月經週期調控作用,且可引起更好的乳房發育效果。 [Shearman (1972b)]
一些專家認為,在每個療程的後半段給予孕激素,會引起更好的乳房增長效果。 [Capraro & Dewhurst (1975)]
有人推薦在每個雌激素治療週期的最後一週加用孕激素,以使乳房發育得更圓潤,不加用就會像許多此類患者一樣長出圓錐形的乳房;但是,我們未能發現加用或不加用孕激素對乳房輪廓產生的任何差異。 [Davajan & Kletzky (1979)]
筆者相信,在激素治療中,有必要加用孕激素來得到較好的乳房反應——儘管如筆者先前所述,孕激素在有子宮的情況下治療一年之後是必需的。 [Dewhurst (1982)]
除了以上片段,Werner (1935) 和 Geschickter (1945) 也評價了孕激素對順性別女性乳房的作用。其中,Werner (1935) 嘗試對 8 名經手術切除性腺的順性別女性注射雌激素、孕酮和泌乳素(均為粗提取物),以誘導泌乳。他聲稱,在兩名給予了孕酮的女性中觀察到乳房尺寸有明顯增長,且幅度較給予雌激素單藥者要更大。他還聲稱,前者的乳房更為結實,乳腺組織“曲度更大且有結節”,乳頭更突出。他在研究中未能成功誘導泌乳。激素系提取而來,故劑量不明,從實驗目的看估計是超生理的、甚至接近於妊娠水平的劑量。Werner 的研究曾被 Nelson (1936) 簡要討論,在他處亦有引用。
Geschickter (1945) 則對兩名女性中的一名給予孕酮並持續六週至兩個月,另一名不給予,然後通過組織活檢對小葉發育情況進行觀察。然而,作者沒有評價乳房外形的物理改變,故其結果的參考價值有限。
繼上述報道和傳言之後,關於孕激素對順性別女孩乳房之作用的研究卻屈指可數,這很令人意外。儘管有關孕激素和順性別女性乳房增長的現有資料十分稀少,但總算有臨牀研究開始更深入地瞭解各類激素藥品——包括孕激素——在正接受青春期誘導治療的女孩的乳房發育上的作用(例如 Rodari et al., 2023);因此,將來的研究有望在這方面提供更多視角。
孕酮及其在人類乳房發育過程中的作用
青春期的孕酮和乳房發育
要回答孕酮在乳房發育過程中起何等作用,以及孕酮在女性化激素治療中是否有助於乳房發育,不妨參考順性別女性經歷青春期時的正常生理狀況。順性別女孩的青春期通常於 11 週歲左右(8–13 週歲之間)開始,後於 15 週歲左右(12–19 週歲)結束,平均持續 3–4 年,但大部分女孩可能會經歷 1.5–6 年左右(Schauffler, 1942; Marshall & Tanner, 1969; Marshall, 1978; Begley, Firth, & Hoult, 1980; Drife, 1986)。孕酮在青春期內不會產生,直至有排卵的月經週期出現。初潮——即第一次月經和月經週期的開始——通常出現於 Tanner 四期、即 13 週歲左右,但也有相當一部分女孩在 Tanner 三期或五期經歷初潮;Tanner 三、四、五期發生初潮的分別有 26%、62% 和 10% (Marshall & Tanner, 1969; Marshall, 1978; Drife, 1986; Hillard, 2007)。因此,孕酮的產生在整個青春期內是較晚出現的事件(Scott et al., 1950; Marshall, 1978; Begley, Firth, & Hoult, 1980; Drife, 1986);乳房發育的大部分時間處在初潮或孕酮開始分泌之前(Huffman, Dewhurst, & Capraro, 1981; Drife, 1982);更有甚者,在初潮之前便已達到 Tanner 五期,即乳房完全發育(Edmonds, 1989);這表明,在青春期,孕酮並非使乳房完成發育的必要條件。
在青春期,順性別女孩的生殖軸尚未成熟(Rosenfield, 2013; Gunn et al., 2018; Carlson & Shaw, 2019; Sun et al., 2019);初潮後一至兩年內,月經週期大多不伴隨排卵(Döring, 1963 [表格]; Apter, 1980; Lemarchand-Béraud et al., 1982; Talbert et al., 1985; Venturoli et al., 1987; Rosenfield, 2013; Gunn et al., 2018; Carlson & Shaw, 2019)。不排卵的情況下,卵泡不會破裂形成黃體,從而不會出現孕酮分泌。在 Tanner 五期之前,有排卵的月經週期僅佔半數左右(Talbert et al., 1985)。此外,初潮後一段時間裏月經週期是偏長的(如 50 天;成人為 28 天),故每年經歷的月經週期偏少(Rosenfield, 2013; Gunn et al., 2018; Carlson & Shaw, 2019)。相比成年人,已經歷初潮的青年人在黃體期的孕酮水平更低,即使排卵後亦然(McArthur, 1966 [圖例]; Lemarchand-Béraud et al., 1982; Apter et al., 1987; Venturoli et al., 1987; Venturoli et al., 1989; Sun et al., 2019)。從而,即使到青春期晚期,孕酮暴露仍是散發且有限的。還有,這種情況不僅發生於 Tanner 五期之前,還會在之後數年間發生。
初潮後,月經週期趨於成熟並持續排卵需六年以上的時間(Lemarchand-Béraud et al., 1982; Venturoli et al., 1987; Carlson & Shaw, 2019);此期間,有排卵的週期佔比逐漸上升,直至接近 100%(Lemarchand-Béraud et al., 1982; Venturoli et al., 1987; Carlson & Shaw, 2019);在此之後,孕酮暴露方可完全達到成年水平(Lemarchand-Béraud et al., 1982; Venturoli et al., 1987)。
提供了青春期不同發育階段或年齡的孕酮水平的研究屈指可數(例如 Sizonenko, 1978 [圖表]; Kühnel, 2000; Lee, 2001 [表格]; Aly, 2020a);他們復現了上述青春期內孕酮暴露有限的結果。
一項名曰“女孩的初例假”(A Girl’s First Period Study)的研究項目於 2022 年公開,旨在更精確地測量青春期和青年女孩的性激素水平,有望更好地揭示孕酮在青春期內所發揮的生理作用(Lucien et al., 2022)。研究者特意將孕酮在乳房發育中的作用作為研究目的的一部分:
初潮以前,包括在伴有一定程度的卵泡黃體化的較低水平的無排卵週期內、以及在早期未成熟的週期內,(孕酮)暴露處於較低水平;那麼這種暴露對於青春期乳房的正常發育是否會發揮重要作用?這個問題之所以有重大的臨牀意義,是因為青春期激素替代治療通常不包含低劑量孕酮——它採用的是規律性(staggered)的雌激素單藥治療,僅當治療兩年後或出現點狀出血時方才加用成人劑量的外源性孕酮。27 這旨在避免出現乳腺管狀化(tubular breasts),不過有限證據提示早期孕酮暴露和不理想的乳房發育有關。28
綜上所述,孕酮分泌是在女性正常青春期當中較晚出現的事件;即使開始分泌,孕酮暴露也是散發且有限的,直至青春期結束之後很長一段時間均如此;還有,一部分女孩在孕酮分泌開始前便已完成乳房發育;加之乳房發育的多數時間都在孕酮產生之前便已完成,以上事實使得孕酮在女性青春期乳房發育過程中的作用受到了懷疑。然而,還需更多研究來探究這點。
從女性正常青春期啓發,興許可以建議:如對女性傾向跨性別者引入孕激素以圖促進乳房發育,引入時機應延遲至激素治療後的兩、三年,這樣可模擬青春期內孕激素的正常暴露。
妊娠期間的孕酮和乳房發育
妊娠期間,受卵巢高度刺激和胎盤形成影響,包括雌激素、孕酮、泌乳素等多種激素在內的激素狀況有大幅改變(見表一)。和月經週期的激素水平相比,妊娠晚期的雌二醇水平升高 100 倍,孕酮水平升高 10–20 倍,泌乳素水平升高約 10 倍(見表一)。其它諸多激素水平在妊娠期間也有明顯改變,例如:雌二醇以外的其它雌激素,雄激素,促性腺激素(人絨膜促性腺激素 *,即 hCG),人胎盤催乳素(hPL),鬆弛素,促腎上腺皮質激素(ACTH),皮質醇,醛固酮,生長激素(GH),胰島素樣生長因子-1(IGF-1),等等(Goodman, 2009 [圖片]; Mesiano, 2019)。它們各自由卵巢、胎盤、腦垂體腺等腺體分泌。隨着妊娠期多種激素的改變,乳房出現了顯著改變,為產後母親的泌乳和哺乳做準備。
* 原文為 human choronic gonadotropin,系筆誤。“Choronic”應作“chorionic”。
表一: 正常妊娠期內雌二醇、孕酮和泌乳素等激素水平的改變,中位值(範圍)
激素 | 未妊娠時 | 妊娠前期 | 妊娠中期 | 妊娠後期 |
---|---|---|---|---|
雌二醇 | 100 (~5–750) pg/mL | 1,000–5,000 pg/mL | 5,000–15,000 pg/mL | 10,000–40,000 pg/mL |
孕酮 | 8.9 (1.0–24) ng/mLa | 22 (5–75) ng/mLb | 35 (15–85) ng/mL | 102 (25–280) ng/mL |
泌乳素 | 13.0 (4.6–37) ng/mL | 16 (3.2–43) ng/mLb | 49 (13–166) ng/mL | 113 (13–318) ng/mL |
注: a) 在月經週期的黃體期內的範圍。 b) 格式已修復——譯者注。 參考資料: 雌二醇(Aly, 2018b; 維基百科; 維基百科)∕孕酮(Kühnel, 2000; Aly, 2020a; 維基百科; 維基百科)∕泌乳素(Kühnel, 2000; 維基百科)
妊娠以前,在每個月經週期的黃體期時,乳房有相當微小卻明顯的小葉發育(Scott et al., 1950; Drife, 1984; Drife, 1989; Drife, 1990; Pocock, Richards, & Richards, 2013; Johnson & Cutler, 2016; Alekseev, 2021)。
但是在妊娠期,乳房會經過明顯得多的小葉發育,並完全成熟;這樣就有了產後乳汁產生和分泌的條件。乳房尺寸會隨妊娠進行而逐漸、大幅增加(Hytten, 1954a; Hytten, 1954b; Baird, Hytten, & Thomson, 1958; Hytten & Thomson, 1965; Hytten & Leitch, 1971a; Hytten & Leitch, 1971b; Hytten, 1976; Thoresen & Wesche, 1988; Cox et al., 1994; Whiteley, 1994; Cox et al., 1999; Cregan & Hartmann, 1999; Kent et al., 1999; Galbarczyk, 2011; Abduljalil et al., 2012; Bayer et al., 2014; Lawrence & Lawrence, 2015; Żelaźniewicz & Pawłowski, 2015; Dallman et al., 2017; Drąsutis, 2017; Żelaźniewicz & Pawłowski, 2019)。
臨牀定量分析研究結果顯示,自妊娠早期至妊娠晚期或產後早期,乳房體積平均增加約 100–300 mL(範圍 -20 至 880 mL),重量平均增加約 200–400 g(Hytten & Thomson, 1965; Hytten & Thomson, 1968; Hytten & Leitch, 1971a; Hytten & Leitch, 1971b; Hytten, 1976; Thoresen & Wesche, 1988; Whiteley, 1994; Hartmann et al., 1996; Cox et al., 1999; Cregan & Hartmann, 1999; Kent et al., 1999; Wright, 2015; Bayer et al., 2014; Żelaźniewicz & Pawłowski, 2015; Drąsutis, 2017; Żelaźniewicz & Pawłowski, 2019)。據報道,某些婦女的乳房尺寸至多可增加兩到三倍(Greydanus et al., 2010)。妊娠期乳房尺寸的增長在個體之間有顯著不同(Hytten & Thomson, 1965; Hytten & Leitch, 1971a; Hassiotou & Geddes, 2013; Bayer et al., 2014)。乳房尺寸的增加與年齡成反比,即較年輕婦女的增加量要明顯高於較年長者:例如 20 歲以下者增加 234–258 mL,而 30 歲以上者增加 79–131 mL([Hytten & Baird, 1958; Hytten & Leitch, 1971a [摘錄]; Hytten, 1976)。
除乳房總體尺寸以外,乳頭和乳暈在妊娠期亦有所增大(Hytten & Baird, 1958; Hytten & Leitch, 1971a; Rohn, 1989; Cox et al., 1999; Hassiotou & Geddes, 2013; Thanaboonyawat et al., 2013; Park et al., 2014);色素沉積更多,從而變成深棕色乃至黑色(Dickson & Hewer, 1950; Thody & Smith, 1977; Wade, Wade, & Jones, 1978; Wong & Ellis, 1984; Elling & Powell, 1997; Muzaffar, Hussain, & Haroon, 1998; Muallem & Rubeiz, 2006; Nussbaum & Benedetto, 2006; Olanrewaju et al., 2017)。
乳房會在妊娠第三、四個月以前具備泌乳能力(Walker, Baker, & Lamb, 2013; Pipkin, 2019; Pocock, Richards, & Richards, 2013; Wright, 2015; Lawrence & Lawrence, 2015);但是,這種能力的完全成熟至少要到妊娠第 6.5 個月左右才發生(Hassiotou & Geddes, 2013)。由若干妊娠期婦女照片組成的時間線,可直觀地看到妊娠期乳房的變化(注意,工作時間不宜:Reddit; 更多材料)。
妊娠期間有多種激素水平會出現大幅改變,目前尚不清楚具體哪些激素推動了妊娠期乳房的改變(Hytten & Leitch, 1971a; Hytten, 1976)。不過,從動物研究可以推斷,包括雌激素、孕酮、泌乳素、胎盤催乳素、糖皮質激素、生長激素在內的一系列激素均通過不同方式,在乳房成熟過程中發揮重要作用(Hytten & Leitch, 1971a; Hytten, 1976; Cox et al., 1999)。一項針對妊娠期乳房改變的臨牀定量分析研究顯示,乳房體積和乳暈面積的增加與 hPL 水平呈正相關,而乳頭尺寸的增加與泌乳素水平呈正相關(Cox et al., 1999)。孕酮和泌乳素被認為推動了妊娠期乳腺小葉的發育(Bässler, 1970; Lee & Ormandy, 2012; Obr & Edwards, 2012);動物研究顯示,二者對於小葉正常增生過程是缺一不可的(Obr & Edwards, 2012; McNally & Stein, 2017; Hannan et al., 2023)。類似地,有病例報道顯示有孤立性泌乳素缺乏的婦女出現無乳(Buhimschi, 2004),這説明泌乳素對於人體也不可或缺。相反的是,病例報道顯示即使妊娠期間 hPL 水平極低,婦女仍可正常泌乳(Gaede, Trolle, & Pedersen, 1978; Hannan et al., 2023),這説明 hPL 可能不是必要的。
分娩、泌乳之後,乳房會經歷“泌乳後退行”的過程,恢復到妊娠前的狀態(Dickson & Hewer, 1950; Ingleby, Moore, & Gershon-Cohen, 1957; Harley, 1969; Gershon-Cohen, 1970; Petrakis, 1978; Huffman, Dewhurst, & Capraro, 1981; Drife, 1986; Caro, 1987; Tanos & Brisken, 2008; Radisky & Hartmann, 2009; Fridriksdottir, Petersen, & Rønnov-Jessen, 2011; Hassiotou & Geddes, 2013; Sun et al., 2018; Alex, Bhandary, & McGuire, 2020)。過程中,大量細胞死亡,隨妊娠期發育的小葉以及其它乳房改變出現回退(Radisky & Hartmann, 2009; Alex, Bhandary, & McGuire, 2020)。臨牀定量分析研究顯示,隨着退行過程完成,乳房完全恢復到妊娠前的大小,甚而略小於之(Kent et al., 1999 [圖片]; Jernström et al., 2005; Dorgan et al., 2013; Lim et al., 2018)。對於妊娠期乳房肥大,同樣觀察到了顯著且完全(或接近完全)的乳房萎縮過程——不過常伴有需手術干預的乳房下垂、畸形(Moss, 1968; van der Meulen, 1974 [圖片]; Swelstad et al., 2006; Naik et al., 2015)。產婦乳房萎縮後,其內科組織學檢查結果和未曾生育者的乳房別無二致(Drife, 1986)。但是,產後乳房並非跟妊娠前的完全一致:前者在組織學層面上的複雜度更高(Dickson & Hewer, 1950; Gershon-Cohen, 1970; Hytten, 1976; Drife, 1986; Drife, 1989; Jeruss, 2006; Fridriksdottir, Petersen, & Rønnov-Jessen, 2011; Hassiotou & Geddes, 2013; Lewin, 2016; Sun et al., 2019);因皮膚和韌帶受到拉伸,往往會更鬆弛、更柔軟、更易下垂(Begley, Firth, & Hoult, 1980; Duncan, 2010; Rauh et al., 2013; Lewin, 2016);乳頭和乳暈仍維持高度成熟和色素沉積(Dickson & Hewer, 1950; Hytten & Baird, 1958; Hytten, 1976; Nussbaum & Benedetto, 2006; Sanuki, Fukuma, & Uchida, 2009; Thanaboonyawat et al., 2013; Park et al., 2014)。
主觀感受方面,一部分婦女感覺到乳房在妊娠後變大,而另一部分感到乳房變小(Rauh et al., 2013; Lewin, 2016)。妊娠可使較小的乳房短暫增大(Capraro & Dewhurst, 1975; Petrakis, 1978; Huffman, Dewhurst, & Capraro, 1981);但也有人稱,產後乳房的萎縮可能“令人煩躁”(Capraro & Dewhurst, 1975)。當再次妊娠時,乳房會和初次妊娠一樣,經歷一輪增大、縮小的循環(Hassiotou & Geddes, 2013)。
綜上所述,即使妊娠期間乳房受激素的極端刺激而出現大幅改變,這種改變基本上不會持續,且完全可逆;只有持續處於高度的激素暴露,這種改變方可維持下去。這其中就包括極高水平的孕酮暴露。從妊娠情況來看,可以認為一旦青春期乳房發育完成,無論暴露於孕激素還是其它已知作用於乳房的激素,乳房都不再永久地進一步增長。
乳腺結構和乳腺小葉容積
乳房主要由兩類組織構成:一是上皮組織,包含導管和小泡/小葉,是實際意義上的乳腺組織;二是間質組織,包括結締組織和脂肪組織。小泡/小葉發育是指小泡和小葉的增生和成熟,是上皮或腺體組織發育的一種形式。孕激素主要參與乳腺小泡/小葉的發育;這類發育主要發生於妊娠期間,為泌乳和哺乳所需。
研究發現,在未妊娠或泌乳的婦女中,上皮組織僅佔乳房體積的 5–20% 左右,其餘 80–95% 均由間質組織構成(Hutson, Cowen, & Bird, 1985; Drife, 1986; Bryant et al., 1998; Gertig et al., 1999; Howard & Gusterson, 2000; Cline & Wood, 2006; Lorincz & Sukumar, 2006; Wilson et al., 2006; Xu et al., 2010; Pandya & Moore, 2011; Hagisawa, Shimura, & Arisaka, 2012; Sandhu et al., 2016; Rosenfield, Cooke, & Radovick, 2021; 維基百科)。具體而言,一項大型研究結果顯示,育齡婦女的乳房有約 10–20% 為上皮組織;脂肪組織約佔 10–35%;結締組織約佔 60–80%(Hutson, Cowen, & Bird, 1985; Wilson et al., 2006)。但多項採用了乳腺 X 光成像的研究所報道的乳腺組織比例更高,介乎 35–48%,與前述矛盾(Klein et al., 1997; Jamal et al., 2004; Duncan, 2010)。
此外,據其它研究發現,乳房中的脂肪佔比平均為 26–48%(範圍 2–78%)(Lejour, 1994; Lejour, 1997; Vandeweyer & Hertens, 2002)。類似地,在患有乳房肥大的婦女中,乳腺組織僅佔乳房的一小部分(如 1–7%)(Bames, 1948; Cruz-Korchin et al., 2001)。
妊娠和哺乳期間,乳房結構有大幅改變,上皮組織佔比大幅增加(Ramsay et al., 2005; Bland, Copeland, & Klimberg, 2018)。實際上,有資料顯示在妊娠和哺乳期間,乳房大部分由乳腺組織構成;一項研究中,乳腺組織構成了哺乳婦女乳房的 63%(範圍 46–83%)(Ramsay et al., 2005)。這並非僅僅出於小泡/小葉發育和腺體增長的緣故;乳房脂肪組織顯著(但可逆)的減少也是原因之一(Wang & Scherer, 2019; Alex, Bhandary, & McGuire, 2020)。 無論如何,在通常的生理條件和孕酮暴露下,乳腺小泡/小葉組織在乳房中的佔比是很小的。於此相關,除了妊娠期水平的孕酮以外,由孕激素介導的乳腺小泡/小葉增長在乳房體積上的體現並不明確,尚且存疑(Orentreich & Durr, 1974; Wierkcx, Gooren, & T’Sjoen, 2014)。
患有完全性雄激素不敏感綜合徵、從而缺乏孕酮的順性別女性中的乳房發育情況
有觀點認為,孕酮可幫助順性別女性和女性傾向跨性別者的乳房從 Tanner 四期發展到五期,使乳房更為豐滿(例如 Vorherr, 1974a; Prior, 2011; Prior, 2019a; Prior, 2020)。在跨性別網絡社羣中也有人認為,在患有“大自然的實驗”:完全性雄激素不敏感綜合徵(CAIS)的順性別女性中,因無孕酮分泌,其乳房發育停滯於 Tanner 四期,乳房“如圓錐形”。但事實上,當前尚無明確證據表明孕酮對於青春期乳房正常發育過程是必要的;尚無證據表明其對於達到 Tanner 五期和乳房的豐滿是有益的;也缺乏其對乳房之圓潤有益的證據。以上觀點和海量文獻和證據南轅北轍,其中也包括有關 CAIS 女性本身的文獻。
CAIS 是指女性的核型為 46,XY(即遺傳學上屬於“男性”),且有睾丸,但由於編碼雄激素受體的基因變異,其對雄激素完全脱敏,從而未能像男性一樣發育。此類綜合徵還有兩種不完全的形態,即部分性雄激素不敏感綜合徵(PAIS)、輕度雄激素不敏感綜合徵(MAIS)。CAIS 女性的激素由睾丸分泌,處於男性典型狀態;其中有處於男性正常偏高水平的睾酮,處於女性正常偏低水平的雌二醇,以及極低的孕酮分泌和孕酮水平(維基百科; 表格)。
從外表看,CAIS 女性並不像男性,而是徹徹底底的女性形態;其體型如正常女性,有陰道和乳房(維基百科; 照片)。其體內的睾酮無法促成男性化,而不受抑制的雌二醇則可促成完全女性化。CAIS 女性的生殖系統和發育高度不良的男性類同,其有睾丸而無卵巢、子宮、輸卵管、宮頸,也沒有前列腺或精囊。睾丸隱於體內,位於腹中、腹股溝或陰唇;因位置緣故,出現睾丸癌的風險更高,故大多於成年以前被手術摘除。陰道通常偏淺,內端閉合,這與子宮的缺失相關。CAIS 患者從行為、性別、性功能上均被認為是女性。
文獻上,患有 CAIS 的女性之乳房發育情況被描述為“良好”“較佳”“正常”“完全”“發育狀況較好”“豐滿”“普遍高於平均水平”“很大”,甚至是“豐乳肥臀(voluptuous)”(Morris, 1953; Simmer, Pion, & Dignam, 1965; Hertz et al., 1966; Valentine, 1969; Adams et al., 1970; Polani, 1970; Weisberg, Malkasian, & Pratt, 1970; Dewhurst, 1971; Dewhurst, 1972; Perez-Palacios & Jaffe, 1972; Glenn, 1976; Dewhurst & Spence, 1977; Dewhurst, 1981; Rutgers & Scully, 1991; Patterson, McPhaul, & Hughes, 1994; Quigley et al., 1995; McPhaul, 2002; Galani et al., 2008; Oakes et al., 2008; Tiefenbacher & Daxenbichler, 2008; Barbieri, 2019)。
婦科專家 John McLean Morris 曾於 1953 年回顧並總結當時關於 CAIS 女性的既有科學文獻(共 82 個病例),將該症狀描述為“有睾丸的女性化”(此名稱現已棄用),他將這批女性的乳房描述為“不尋常的大”“體積很大”(Morris, 1953; Quigley et al., 1995)。另一作者還稱,“在(‘男性’)有睾丸的女性化中觀察到乳房發育得圓潤透紅(florid),這可能不以任何外部環境為轉移”(Wilson, 1968)。
儘管以上觀點都稱 CAIS 女性乳房大,但實際上,有的 CAIS 女性乳房偏大,有的則偏小。一項研究經測量發現,其乳房尺寸介乎 16×14 cm 至 41×31 cm;以面積計算,差異達接近六倍之多(Wisniewski et al., 2000)。還有,CAIS 女性和普通女性乳房的大小至今從未有直接比較。因此,目前尚無明確資料證明其乳房體積是否確實大於女性平均水平。
從 CAIS 女性觀察到的乳房發育之差異,和在一般順性別女性當中觀察到的乳房體積之巨大差異是一致的。此相冊收集了文獻上公開的病例報告和綜述所附 CAIS 女性及其乳房發育的照片;從中可以看出,CAIS 女性的乳房發育正常且往往較佳,但乳房體積和形狀在不同個體間有較大差異,這和一般女性相似。
假定 CAIS 女性確實較一般女性有更佳的乳房發育和體積,那麼原因可能在於其對雄激素不敏感,從而由雌激素介導的乳房發育不會被雄激素阻斷(Wilson, 1968; Sobrinho, Kase, & Grunt, 1971; Andler & Zachmann, 1979; Zachmann et al., 1986; Patterson, McPhaul, & Hughes, 1994; Barbieri, 2019);理論上還有一種可能性,即在其乳房和其它組織中,因睾酮水平較高,經芳香化形成的雌二醇也會更多,從而使得更好的乳房發育成為可能(Ladjouze & Donaldson, 2019)。
有意思的是,有學者的經驗之談稱,(未接受性腺切除術的)CAIS 女性可在內源激素影響下自然地經歷青春期,相比於青春期前即摘除性腺、需外源性雌激素治療來誘導青春期的 CAIS 女性,前者的乳房發育情況要好上許多(Dewhurst, 1972; Glenn, 1976; Dewhurst, 1981; Reindollar & McDonough, 1985; Shearman, 1985; Laufer, Goldstein, & Hendren, 2005);相應地,已有經青春期誘導的 CAIS 女性因乳房發育不良,要求接受隆胸手術的報道(Dewhurst, 1981; Shearman, 1985)。有鑑於此,臨牀實踐中常採用的一線方案是,推遲對 CAIS 女性行性腺切除術,直至青春期完全結束(Laufer, Goldstein, & Hendren, 2005)。不過,據一項臨牀研究報道,所有經歷自發性的、或治療誘導的青春期的 CAIS 女性均有良好的乳房發育,達 Tanner 五期(Cheikhelard et al., 2008)。
在 CAIS 女性的青春期誘導過程中模擬青春期雌激素的暴露,可能是必要的:先引入較低的生理性雌二醇水平,此後數年間逐漸、緩慢增加(Dewhurst, 1981; Cheikhelard et al., 2008; Bertelloni et al., 2011)。
Baron 對 41 名雄激素不敏感綜合徵(AIS)患者進行評價時發現,CAIS 女性中 97% 的乳房發育正常;“不完全的 AIS”(估計是 PAIS)患者中有 63% 的乳房發育正常(Baron, 1993; Baron, 1994a; Baron, 1994b)。更早前由 Christopher John Dewhurst 爵士開展並發表的一項研究顯示,50 名 CAIS 女性被評價為“乳房發育完全”的佔 76%,“乳房中等發育”的佔 14%,“乳房輕度發育”的佔 10%,“乳房未發育”的佔 0%(Dewhurst, 1971b)。由以上大規模樣本的結果可知,大多數、或幾乎所有的個體均有正常或完全的乳房發育。之所以小部分 CAIS 女性乳房增長較小,可能是因為:某些個體的雌二醇水平較低、從而相對不足;接受試驗時的年齡較小,乳房尚未完成發育;一般女性本就有一小部分的乳房發育不完全或較小;等等。
CAIS 女性的乳房從未被描述成“錐形”“尖狀”或其它不規則形狀。只有一種例外,就是其乳暈和乳頭常被描述為“粉嫩(juvenile)”“如嬰兒般白嫩(infantile)”“小”“白皙”“無色素沉積”(例如此照片)(見於 Morris, 1953; Morris & Mahesh, 1963; Simmer, Pion, & Dignam, 1965; Dewhurst, 1967; Khoo & Mackay, 1972; Perez-Palacios & Jaffe, 1972; Dewhurst & Spence, 1977)。有觀點認為,此現象與乳房尺寸或成熟度均無關(Khoo & Mackay, 1972)。其原因可能在於 CAIS 女性的雌二醇水平平均僅有 35 pg/mL 左右(維基百科; 表格),而雌激素可引導乳頭、乳暈增大和色素沉積,且與濃度相關(Davis et al., 1945 [圖片]; Kennedy & Nathanson, 1953)。孕激素的情況則相反:其尚未被認為和乳頭或乳暈的色素沉積相關。因此,要讓乳頭、乳暈和成人一樣完全成熟,可能需更高的雌激素水平。
CAIS 女性的乳房可像正常女性一樣發育至 Tanner 五期,即完全成熟(Quigley, 1988; Quigley et al., 1995; Finkenzeller & Loveless, 2007; Cheikhelard et al., 2008; Ramos et al., 2018; Arya et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021)。
婦科專家 Robert Rebar 曾在其數十年間的多份綜述、圖書章節等專著中稱,CAIS 女性的乳房發育大多僅達到了 Tanner 三期(Kustin & Rebar, 1987; Rebar, 1988; Rebar, 1990; Simpson & Rebar, 1990; Rebar, 1993; Rebar, 1996; Wellons & Rebar, 2013; Wellons, Weeber, & Rebar, 2017);但是,他的看法跟其他學者的觀點、研究和病例報告都截然相反。Rebar 在某圖書的一章寫道,CAIS 女性會經歷乳房發育和女性化,且乳房有正常的導管和乳腺組織結構,但“乳暈白皙,發育不良(Tanner 三期)”(Rebar, 1993)。這表明他所指出的可能並非整個乳房的增長達到 Tanner 三期,而是乳頭和乳暈的成熟度如此(Rebar, 1993)。
除 CAIS 以外,患有 PAIS 的個體也往往有可觀的乳房增長,與女性無異(例如 Saito et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2015);還有報道稱 PAIS 女性接受雌激素治療後,乳房同樣發育至 Tanner 五期(Guaragna-Filho et al., 2023)。
據稱 CAIS 女性雖多有較大的乳房,但乳腺組織較小(相對於脂肪和結締組織),乳腺小泡/小葉幾乎未發育(Morris, 1953; Morris & Mahesh, 1963; Simmer, Pion, & Dignam, 1965; McMillan, 1966; Perez-Palacios & Jaffe, 1972; Dewhurst & Spence, 1977; Shapiro, 1982)。這與孕酮的缺乏有關,因為孕酮對於誘導乳腺小泡/小葉的增長至關重要。CAIS 女性的乳房在乳腺和小葉結構較小的情況下仍維持較大尺寸,也印證了乳房主要由間質脂肪組織和結締組織構成這一事實。因此,正如上文所述,更高的乳腺或小泡/小葉組織佔比不一定會使得乳房體積更大,這點在 CAIS 女性身上顯而易見。
除了乳房發育正常乃至更佳,還需説明的是,CAIS 女性因有睾丸、從而沒有來自性腺的大量孕酮分泌的緣故,孕酮水平極度偏低(維基百科; 表格; Barbieri, 2019)。綜合 CAIS 女性乳房發育正常(且往往偏大)、乳房依 Tanner 分級達到完全成熟等事實來看,在青春期並不需要孕酮來實現正常、完全的乳房發育(Barbieri, 2019)。無論如何,必須再次提請留意:CAIS 女性乳房和普通女性的乳房之間至今從未經過直接比較。
還有,對 CAIS 女性乳房的量化研究十分稀少,我們對此的認識亦大多侷限於口頭上的臨牀經驗和主觀的乳房評價。這很大程度上要歸咎於 CAIS 女性數目之稀少、獲取足夠樣本以供研究的難度之大。除缺乏孕酮外,CAIS 女性跟普通女性還有其它諸多不同之處,例如:雌二醇循環水平相對較低,睾酮水平偏高(在乳房等組織內可經芳香化成為雌二醇),對雄激素不敏感,核型為 XY,等等。因此,這裏討論 CAIS 女性乳房發育的同時,也附上了一系列補充説明。
耐人尋味的是,儘管乳房發育良好,但 CAIS 女性從未有任何乳腺癌報告(Aly, 2020b; Aly, 2020c)。這可能和以下因素有關:缺乏孕酮、缺乏乳腺小泡/小葉的成熟,和/或缺少第二條 X 染色體(Aly, 2020b; Aly, 2020c)。這表明,乳腺癌並非乳房發育較佳的必然結局。
月經週期和伴隨的週期性短暫性乳房增大
乳房尺寸隨月經週期而發生波動,其中在黃體期有明顯增大(Shuttleworth, 1938 [圖片]; Ingleby, 1949; Scott et al., 1950; Milligan, Drife, & Short, 1975; Drife, 1982; Malini, Smith, & Goldzieher, 1985; Drife, 1989; Fowler et al., 1990; Graham et al., 1995; Jemström & Olsson, 1997; Hussain et al., 1999; Hussain, Brooks, & Percy, 2008; Wang et al., 2019; Rix et al., 2023)。此時女性會感到乳房發脹、刺癢、緊張等(Shuttleworth, 1938 [圖片]; Milligan, Drife, & Short, 1975; Laessle et al., 1990; Jemström & Olsson, 1997)。據報道,乳房體積於黃體期平均增長約 75–100 mL;相對於平均體積,卵泡期和排卵時最低可縮小至 90%,而黃體期可增至 110%,二者間平均相差 15–20% 左右(Milligan, Drife, & Short, 1975; Malini et al., 1985; Drife, 1989; Fowler et al., 1990; Hussain et al., 1999; Hussain, Brooks, & Percy, 2008; Rix et al., 2023)。然而,近期研究採用更佳的測量手段測出的乳房改變幅度更小:卵泡期乳房體積距平減小 4–10%,黃體期距平增加 3–21%(Rix et al., 2023);同時,據稱乳房體積平均增長的幅度(37 mL 或 35 g)相當於三分之一個罩杯,某些人的增幅可達一個罩杯(Rix et al., 2023)。個體間乳房體積變幅的差異極大:在整個月經週期,一些人的乳房沒有改變,而最極端的案例可見 40–45% 的增幅(Ingleby, 1949; Malini, Smith, & Goldzieher, 1985; Fowler et al., 1990; Hussain et al., 1999; Hussain, Brooks, & Percy, 2008; Rix et al., 2023)。
黃體期乳房的增大被認為歸因於:乳腺和間質組織的短暫增長,導管和小泡內腔擴張,乳腺和間質組織內液體瀦留,以及血管形成和血流量增加(Scott et al., 1950; Drife, 1989; Fowler et al., 1990; Hussain et al., 1999; Alekseev, 2021; Biswas et al., 2022)。但有研究表明,這種改變大多僅僅出於水含量波動的緣故,而乳腺體積的實際改變較小(Rix et al., 2023)。月經週期內的乳房改變被發現和黃體期雌二醇、孕酮水平的升高呈正相關(Jemström & Olsson, 1997; Clendenen et al., 2013; Rix et al., 2023)。還有,雌激素治療被發現可增加乳房尺寸(過程可逆)(例如 Hartmann et al., 1998),且雌二醇水平與乳房緊張感呈正相關(例如 de Lignières & Mauvais-Jarvis, 1981 [圖片]; Sitruk-Ware et al., 1984) 。雌二醇和孕酮均可以各自的方式增加水分瀦留,介導乳腺增長和乳房改變(Rix et al., 2023)。因此,月經週期內的乳房改變被推測歸因於雌二醇和孕酮水平的改變,但要註明的是孕酮被認為在黃體期推動了乳房體積的增加(Lawrence & Lawrence, 2015; Rix et al., 2023)。月經週期的乳房增大相對於雌二醇和孕酮水平達到峯值的時間有所延後,並非立即發生(Rix et al., 2023)。
口服複方避孕藥是一系列雌激素—孕激素複方產品,其和更年期雌激素—孕激素治療均可短暫地引起乳房增大和乳房發脹感,類似於月經週期內黃體期的變化(Milligan, Drife, & Short, 1975; Dennerstein et al., 1980 [圖片]; Malini, Smith, & Goldzieher, 1985; Jemström & Olsson, 1997; Jernström et al., 2005)。一項研究中,正服用口服避孕藥的婦女出現了相對於未服用者/既往服用者約 100 mL(~30%)的乳房體積增長;據一些婦女的自發報告,其乳房增長最大達到一個罩杯(Jemström & Olsson, 1997)。然而,同一批研究者開展的、樣本規模更大的另一項研究中,激素避孕藥使用者(n=258)和未服用者(n=65)之間的乳房體積沒有顯著差別(Jernström et al., 2005)。還有一項研究測量了服用不同類型的雌激素—孕激素口服避孕藥(其中孕激素成分均為炔諾酮,但劑量相差六倍,介乎 0.4–2.5 mg/天)的婦女和未服用者的乳房體積,未發現有顯著差別;但是,其樣本規模過小(每組 n=5 和 n=15),統計證據不足(Malini, Smith, & Goldzieher, 1985)。
Engman et al. (2008) 開展了一項為期三個月的 RCT,其中評價了米非司酮(一種選擇性孕酮受體調節劑,主要發揮抗孕激素作用)用於月經正常的未絕經順性別女性時對其乳房的作用,並和安慰劑進行比較。結果是,米非司酮降低了 Ki-67 抗原係數(一種反映乳房細胞增殖的指標),也降低了乳房症狀自評表(BSI)的主觀得分:具體而言,BSI“乳房疼痛感”“乳房腫脹感”“對乳房體積增長的感覺”等小項以及總得分均有顯著性地下降。但是,該研究沒有采用客觀的乳房體積測量手段。該研究有一項重大侷限性:即米非司酮可抑制排卵,並改變雌二醇及其它激素的水平(Spitz et al., 1989; Spitz et al., 1994; Engman et al., 2008; Spitz, 2010)。因此,尚不清楚 Engman 及同行所觀察到的結果是否可歸因於對乳房孕酮受體的抑制作用,或是對下丘腦—垂體—性腺軸(HPG 軸)的干擾作用,例如雌二醇水平下降。
一份耐人尋味的案例報告記錄了某患有 CAIS 的成年女性接受雌激素—孕激素聯合治療後,出現相對於雌激素單藥治療有顯著性地更大的乳房體積增長(Dijkman et al., 2023b)。該女性初始時序貫口服雌二醇 2 mg/天、地屈孕酮 10 mg/天,自稱治療期間經歷了乳房疼痛和乳房體積的波動,變幅約為一個罩杯;隨後,她改用口服戊酸雌二醇 3 mg/天單藥,乳房體積的波動中止。但是,其乳房總體積也縮小了,遂決定恢復雌激素—孕激素聯合治療。其醫師以全身三維掃描的形式測量乳房體積;接受雌激素單藥治療時,左、右乳房體積分別為 758 mL、673 mL;接受雌激素—孕激素聯合治療時,則分別增長至 875 mL、784 mL,淨增加值分別達 117 mL(+16%)和 111 mL(+17%)。此增幅幾乎相當於一個罩杯的差異。研究者寫道,雌二醇和孕酮均與乳房的週期性變化有關,並推斷患者乳房的改變歸因於體液瀦留增加。綜上,該案例報告表明了孕激素在某些女性中可引起快速、明顯、可逆的乳房增大,類似於正常月經週期中的改變。
動物中孕酮和乳腺發育的關係
動物中的孕酮和青春期乳腺發育
雌性小鼠中,敲除 孕酮受體導致生育力完全喪失,卵巢、子宮、生殖行為功能重度受損(Lydon et al., 1995; Ismail et al., 2003)。但另一方面,被敲除孕酮受體的小鼠在青春期的乳腺導管發育正常,形態學上與正常小鼠別無二致(Soyal et al., 2002; Ismail et al., 2003; Fernandez-Valdivia et al., 2005)。而被敲除雌激素受體 α 的小鼠則有相反的表現,其青春期乳腺發育完全停止(Ismail et al., 2003; Fernandez-Valdivia et al., 2005; 維基百科; 維基百科)。
然而,後續研究表明,雌性小鼠在無孕酮分泌、無孕酮受體或給予孕酮受體拮抗劑(米非司酮)的情況下,實際上出現了乳腺導管推遲發育的情況(Shi, Lydon, & Zhang, 2004)。換言之,孕酮在青春期可刺激並加速乳腺導管發育,從而在青春期乳腺早期發育當中具備明顯的生理作用。孕酮對乳腺導管發育的刺激作用應是通過引誘乳腺導管和尾結表達雙調蛋白而介導的(Kariagina et al., 2010; Aupperlee et al., 2013);雙調蛋白作為表皮生長因子受體(EGFR)的激動劑,是青春期由雌激素引誘表達、介導乳腺發育的主要生長因子(Ciarloni, Mallepell, & Brisken, 2007; LaMarca & Rosen, 2007; McBryan et al., 2008)。無論如何,由於無孕酮參與的青春期乳腺導管發育只是被延遲、而會逐漸完成,故而有觀點總結道,孕酮在小鼠的青春期乳腺發育過程中是可有可無的(Soyal et al., 2002; Ismail et al., 2003; Fernandez-Valdivia et al., 2005)。
儘管孕酮在小鼠青春期乳腺的正常發育中並不是必需的,但有研究表明其可取代雌激素來介導發育過程中的導管發育。Ruan, Monaco, & Kleinberg, 2005 就各類含外源性雌二醇、孕酮、IFG-1 的組合用於摘除卵巢且敲除 IGF-1 的小鼠時的作用開展研究。其中,孕酮和 IGF-1 組合所誘導的導管發育佔據了乳腺脂肪墊的 92%;雌二醇和 IGF-1 組合佔據了 92%;雌二醇、孕酮和 IGF-1 組合佔據了 96%;IGF-1 單藥僅佔據了 28%(Ruan, Monaco, & Kleinberg, 2005; Kleinberg & Ruan, 2008)。據稱,孕酮和 IGF-1 所促成的樹狀導管絡從解剖學形態上接近於青春期正常發育的乳腺(Ruan, Monaco, & Kleinberg, 2005)。然而,雌二醇/IGF-1 組合和孕酮/IGF-1 組合之間的乳腺發育有明顯差別,其中前者對末端尾結形成、導管紋理的作用更大,也對小泡成熟有較弱作用;而後者對導管形成、擴張、分叉的作用更大(Ruan, Monaco, & Kleinberg, 2005; Kleinberg & Ruan, 2008)。孕酮受體拮抗劑米非司酮逆轉了孕酮引起的乳腺發育作用(Ruan, Monaco, & Kleinberg, 2005)。只有雌二醇/孕酮/IGF-1 組合實現了近似於妊娠中期的乳腺發育,分泌小泡結構完全成熟(Ruan, Monaco, & Kleinberg, 2005; Kleinberg & Ruan, 2008)。
除上述研究外,還有多項研究發現,小鼠於妊娠期給予外源性孕酮後,乳腺導管分叉有所增加(Atwood et al., 2000; Hovey et al., 2001; Satoh et al., 2007; Aupperlee et al., 2013)。
這些採用外源性孕酮來誘發小鼠青春期乳腺發育的研究有一項侷限性:即孕酮劑量以及其它合用的激素劑量(如雌二醇)足以促使乳腺增長至妊娠典型水平,乳腺小葉/小泡結構高度成熟(例如 Škarda, Fremrová, & Bezecný, 1989; Ruan, Monaco, & Kleinberg, 2005);在妊娠期間,激素水平遠高於通常狀態。因此,這些研究中的孕酮暴露可能超出了正常青春期的生理範圍,其帶來的效果不能反映青春期的狀態。相應地,據 Škarda, Fremrová, & Bezecný, 1989 的發現,未經治療、和以外源性雌激素治療的正常雌性小鼠的乳腺面積分別達 26.4 mm2、25.3 mm2,而以外源性雌二醇及孕酮治療的、和外源性孕酮單藥治療的正常雌性小鼠則分別有 43.5 mm2、64.6 mm2的乳腺面積;未治療者未見有小泡結節,而經孕酮治療者可見小泡成熟,且發育程度接近於妊娠、也高於未妊娠小鼠的生理狀態(Škarda, Fremrová, & Bezecný, 1989)。無論如何,有一項研究儘管採用了很低的孕酮劑量——0.1 mg/天,是其它多數研究(1 mg/天)的十分之一——但仍明顯誘導了小鼠乳腺導管的發育(Aupperlee et al., 2013; Berryhill, Trott, & Hovey, 2016)。因此,即使劑量較低,孕酮仍可誘導一定程度的小鼠乳腺導管增長。
儘管孕激素本身顯然可取代雌激素暴露,誘導小鼠青春期乳腺的正常發育,但這是否對人類適用尚未可知。已知在人體缺少雌激素活性的情況下,孕激素本身一般不會引起乳房發育。例如,MPA、CPA 等孕激素曾被作為青春期阻斷劑,以較高劑量用於男孩及女孩;其並未引起乳房發育,反而因抑制性腺功能而中斷、逆轉了乳房發育(Lyon, de Bruyn, & Grant, 1985; Fuqua & Eugster, 2022)。男孩中有因 CPA 引起乳房增生的報道,但佔比很低,且完全可歸因於孕激素活性以外的原因——例如 CPA 的抗雄激素作用和對 HPG 軸的干擾作用(Kauli et al., 1984; Laron & Kauli, 2000)。無獨有偶,MPA、CPA 等孕激素曾用於男性以治療前列腺症狀和性慾障礙,並未普遍引起乳房增生;CPA 用於治療前列腺癌時,男性乳腺增生的發生率很低(~10%),與經手術或藥物去勢者的發生率沒有明顯差別(Fourcade & McLeod, 2004; di Lorenzo et al., 2005)。這與雌激素和非甾體抗雄製劑引起的男性乳腺增生髮生率(高達 70–80%)可謂天壤之別(Fourcade & McLeod, 2004; di Lorenzo et al., 2005; Deepinder & Braunstein, 2012)。物種間的差別可能是孕激素引起小鼠青春期乳腺發育、但沒有引起人體乳房發育的原因所在。
動物中的孕酮和妊娠乳腺發育
和人體相似,在齧齒動物和靈長目動物等多種動物模型中,妊娠引起了雌激素、孕酮、泌乳素等多種激素水平的上升(Hasan, 1974; Cowie, Forsyth, & Hart, 1980; Pasqualini & Kincl, 1985; Günzel et al., 1987; Seibert & Günzel, 1994);同時,乳腺組織有大幅改變,其中小泡/小葉極大成熟,為泌乳和哺乳做準備(Cowie, Forsyth, & Hart, 1980; Richert et al., 2000; Cline & Wood, 2008; McNally & Stein, 2017)。動物中也觀察到了乳房的永久性增大,主要歸因於青春期脂肪組織的極大增加;動物外乳儘管亦有所增長(例如 Geschickter, 1945 [圖片]),但僅在妊娠時才有大幅增大(Pawłowski & Żelaźniewicz, 2021)。獼猴模型中,乳腺組織在妊娠期間增長了約 10–20 倍(Cline & Wood, 2008)。
對齧齒目等多種動物的未妊娠雌性成年個體給予一定量的外源性雌二醇和孕酮,引起了類似於妊娠期的乳腺發育(Nelson, 1936; Turner, 1939; Folley, 1940; Folley, 1947; Folley & Malpress, 1948; Folley, 1950; Folley, 1952; Folley, 1956; Lyons, 1958; Lyons, Li, & Johnson, 1958; Cowie & Folley, 1961; Jacbosohn, 1961; Cole & Hopkins, 1962; Lloyd & Leathem, 1964; Meites, 1966; Bässler, 1970; Ceriani, 1974; Vorherr, 1974b; Cowie, Forsyth, & Hart, 1980; Tucker, 2000; Kleinberg, 2006; Kleinberg & Ruan, 2008; Kleinberg et al., 2009; Kleinberg & Barcellos-Hoff, 2011);同時,由於雌激素和孕酮誘導了腦垂體腺產生和分泌泌乳素,故泌乳素水平也升至高位(Ceriani, 1974; Bethea, Kohama, & Pecins-Thompson, 1997; Camilletti et al., 2019)。儘管在多類物種中,雌二醇和孕酮各自均足以引起類似於妊娠的、完全的乳腺發育;但在恆河猴模型中,雌二醇、孕酮和胎盤催乳素組合所誘導的泌乳活動遠遠弱於經過正常妊娠者(Beck, 1972; Cowie, Forsyth, & Hart, 1980)。相應地,在靈長目動物中,可能還需胎盤催乳素和/或其它激素因子來實現類似妊娠的、完全的乳腺發育成熟(Beck, 1972; Cowie, Forsyth, & Hart, 1980)。
已知在齧齒目、猴等動物中,乳腺在泌乳和哺乳結束後發生退行,恢復到妊娠前狀態,這與人類相似(Richert et al., 2000; Cline & Wood, 2006; Cline & Wood, 2008; Fridriksdottir, Petersen, & Rønnov-Jessen, 2011; McNally & Stein, 2017)。
治療性假妊娠引起的乳房改變
治療性/藥理假妊娠是激素治療的一種,即出於某些醫療目的而需要復現妊娠期激素狀態(mileu)之時,對順性別女性給予外源性激素;實際採用的激素有雌激素和孕激素,劑量非常高,而其它妊娠相關的激素並未被使用。該療法最初於 1950 年代被髮明,而現今醫學上已很少使用(Kaiser, 1993)。
治療性假妊娠對乳房的作用及改變和妊娠相同,例如小泡/小葉的發育和乳房的顯著增大(且可逆),故值得關注。Lauritzen 及同行於 1980 年代開展了一項研究,其中對順性別女性採取治療性假妊娠以治療乳房發育不全(Lauritzen, 1980; Lauritzen, 1982; Lauritzen, 1989; Göretzlehner & Lauritzen, 1992);採用的雌激素為戊酸雌二醇,肌注 40 mg/周;採用的孕激素為己酸羥孕酮(OHPC),肌注 250–500 mg/周;治療持續 4–5 個月。戊酸雌二醇劑量極高:據同一批作者於其它研究論文報道,該劑量使得雌二醇水平升至女性妊娠前期範圍(約 3,000 pg/mL,或 11,000 pmol/L)(Ulrich, Pfeifer, & Lauritzen, 1994; Ulrich et al., 1995),相當於未妊娠時正常濃度的約 30 倍(Aly, 2018b)。OHPC 劑量也非常高:在每月 250–500 mg 的劑量下,孕激素暴露強度已相當於黃體期水平(維基百科),而研究中每週就注射等量的 OHPC,此時暴露強度相當於黃體期的約 4.5 倍、接近於妊娠前期或中期的孕酮水平(Aly, 2020d)。作者表示前期曾運用較低的、接近於 1950 年代主流的激素劑量,但未引起明顯的乳房增長,故增加了劑量。研究中測量乳房改變的手段有:捲尺(水平、垂直貼附於乳房區域),照片,X 光和超聲波成像,以及——後續加入的——用橡皮泥對乳房印模後測量模型容積。
Lauritzen 及其同行在四篇不同著述中都報道了這項研究的結果,不僅跟蹤時長不同,且樣本規模逐漸增加。第二次跟蹤時,接受治療者計 78 人,其中 29 人(37%)被報道小於 18 週歲;但在最後一次跟蹤時,接受治療者累計 221 人,年齡範圍介乎 18–42 週歲。研究發現,治療組有 65% 的乳房體積較基線增加了 10–30%;相應地,幾乎所有受試女性均有乳房緊張感,但緊張感隨時間推移而逐漸減弱;觀察到罕見的、乳房相關的其餘副作用,包括色素沉積和伸展疤痕等。至治療結束時,泌乳素水平略微升至 14–28 pg/mL。乳房成像結果提示了乳腺密度加大。研究者認為,研究中的乳房體積增加是由脂肪組織增長、液體瀦留、中等程度的乳腺組織增生所致。
治療終止後,受試女性有 40% 的乳房體積出現逐漸的、部分程度的萎縮,結果仍大於基線 10–20%。但作者認為,通過給予適當劑量的雌激素—孕激素複方避孕藥片、或對乳房給予外用雌激素和孕激素治療,可減少乳房萎縮程度;還聲稱可再次利用治療性假妊娠來增加乳房體積——上述受試女性的一部分在六個月後又接受了 1–2 次治療性假妊娠。據稱至第二次跟蹤時,78 名受試者有 12 名(15%)曾接受多次治療。
另外還有多名研究者報道,為增加乳房尺寸,對順性別女性給予雌激素和/或孕激素治療,治療停止後乳房尺寸有明顯或完全的萎縮(例如 Cernea, 1944; Müller, 1953; Anderson, 1962; Bruck & Müller, 1967; Keller, 1984; Kaiser & Leidenberger, 1991; Keller, 1995; Hartmann et al., 1998)。
Lauritzen 及同行的研究結果鮮少通過正式途徑發表:分散於未經同行評議的圖書章節、會議紀要和醫學雜誌,從未發表於經同行評議的期刊文章上。與此對應地,對研究方法和結果的描述都比較粗略且不甚精確。研究方法上的問題還有:缺少對照組,缺少隨機化,乳房測量手段的質量,等等。因此,研究結果的解讀難度大,可信度堪憂。不管怎樣,研究結果表明,高劑量雌激素—孕激素聯合治療通過給予妊娠早期水平的雌激素和孕激素暴露量,可引起乳房尺寸短期的明顯增加,以及長期的小幅增加——如此結果與其他研究者的結果相矛盾,後者顯示乳房的改變在治療停止後便完全回退了。這也與關於妊娠婦女的結果大相徑庭:當哺乳期結束後,其乳房便完全恢復至妊娠前大小,甚而略小於之。
由於 Lauritzen 及同行的研究中未設置僅給予雌激素或孕激素單藥的對照組,故難以判斷其中雌激素和孕激素各自的作用。已知雌激素和孕激素均與乳房增大有關,且很可能是引起乳房改變的原因所在;故此,尚不清楚孕激素暴露和雌激素暴露在乳房改變中孰重孰輕。
Lauritzen 及同行所觀察到的乳房尺寸之增幅應當小於妊娠期間的改變;他們亦未提及妊娠相關的某些乳房改變,如乳頭、乳暈色素沉積;其中原因尚不完全清楚。諸研究的受試羣體並不一致,例如初始乳房尺寸和年齡等可能影響研究結果的因素;還有一點,研究中僅發現雌激素和孕激素水平升高,而其它妊娠激素中僅泌乳素水平有小幅升高,其餘均未上升——這也可能影響研究結果。像 hPL 和 IGF-1 這樣的妊娠激素,也是有可能參與妊娠期乳房發育的。最後一點,治療僅持續了 4–5 個月,雌激素、孕激素暴露量僅相當於妊娠早期至中期水平——須知一次正常妊娠會持續 9 個月,直至分娩時仍持續有雌激素、孕酮水平的大幅上升。
需要註明,由於治療性假妊娠所需的、高度超生理性的雌激素和孕激素水平可引起血栓和心血管疾病等重大併發症(Aly, 2020e),且乳房體積的增加在治療後基本不能維持,故其不適用於、也不宜推薦用於女性傾向跨性別者。但不管怎樣,我們討論雌激素和孕激素對乳房增長的作用時,通過歷史上治療性假妊娠用於順性別女性乳房以促進體積增長的研究結果,尚可獲得一些理論上的見解。
孕激素早期暴露和乳房發育不理想的潛在關係
儘管有女性傾向跨性別者看中了孕激素促進乳房發育的潛力而尋求之,但文獻上已有觀點稱,孕激素可能導致乳房發育不理想,亦可能抑制或削弱雌激素介導的乳房發育。資料分為以下幾類:孕激素在乳房中表達抗雌激素作用的記載;動物模型給予高劑量孕激素後出現乳房發育不良的記載;以乳房發育可能不良為由,不推薦於女性青春期誘導過程中過早引入孕激素的相關臨牀出版物;臨牀上將孕激素用於順性別女性以治療乳房肥大的記載;順性別女孩中因性發育障礙導致孕酮暴露量高、從而經雌激素誘導的乳房發育不良的記載;以及,女性傾向跨性別者經雌激素和 CPA(強效孕激素)治療後,乳房發育大多不良的記載。至於孕激素是否可改善乳房發育這個問題,目前尚不清楚孕激素是否反過來使之惡化,或者在何等劑量、何時引入才有改善作用。不管怎樣,以上話題將各自以一個章節加以討論,以圖面面俱到。
孕激素在乳房中表達的抗雌激素作用
已知孕激素在子宮、陰道和宮頸等組織內具有很強的抗雌激素作用(維基百科)。因為這點,孕激素被引入到更年期激素治療,以預防子宮內膜增生和子宮內膜癌——而不受控的雌激素治療會有這方面的風險(維基百科)。在乳房,孕激素也會表達抗雌激素作用(Mauvais-Jarvis, Kuttenn, & Gompel, 1986a; Mauvais-Jarvis, Kuttenn, & Gompel, 1986b; Mauvais-Jarvis, Kuttenn, & Gompel, 1987; Mauvais-Jarvis et al., 1987; Kuttenn et al., 1994; Wren & Eden, 1996; Plu-Bureau, Touraine, & Mauvais-Jarvis, 1999; 維基百科)。其作用可能包括:
- 抑制雌激素合成、增加雌激素在乳房的失活(Pasqualini, 2007; Pasqualini, 2009);
- 減少雌激素受體在乳房的表達(Mauvais-Jarvis, Kuttenn, & Gompel, 1986b; Malet et al., 1991; Kuttenn et al., 1994; Wren & Eden, 1996; Graham & Clarke, 1997; Plu-Bureau, Touraine, & Mauvais-Jarvis, 1999)。
臨牀研究發現,將外用孕酮直接用於乳房,可抑制雌激素介導的乳腺細胞增生;但這可能是因為對乳房局部給予了超生理水平的孕酮(Barrat et al., 1990; Chang et al., 1995; Foidart et al., 1996; Spicer, Ursin, & Pike, 1996; Foidart et al., 1998; de Lignières, 2002; Gompel & Plu-Bureau, 2018; Trabert et al., 2020)。與此相關的是,孕激素被認為可有效治療乳房疼痛、乳腺結節、乳腺纖維囊性病變等雌激素依賴性良性乳房疾病(Mauvais-Jarvis, Sitruk-Ware, & Kuttenn, 1981; Winkler et al., 2001; Schindler, 2011; 維基百科; 維基百科; 維基百科)。據報道,孕激素也抑制了高劑量雌激素治療誘導的乳頭和乳暈色素沉積作用(Crowley & Macdonald, 1965)。但和上述結果相反的是,在圍絕經期的雌激素治療中加入孕激素後,引起了乳腺癌風險的明顯上升(Aly, 2020b; 維基百科)。無論如何,通過孕激素在乳房中的抗雌激素作用,孕激素是有可能限制雌激素介導的乳房發育的;但是,孕激素亦可能借此作用來同時誘導導管發育和小泡/小葉發育,這種發育不符合青春期的特徵(Randolph, 2018)。
動物研究中孕激素引起的乳腺增長不良
有動物研究運用了生物同質的孕酮、以及醋酸氯地孕酮(CMA,一種類似於 CPA 的人工孕激素),結果表明:兩類孕激素在高劑量下明顯阻滯了兔的乳腺發育,但在低劑量下沒有阻滯作用(Lyons & McGinty, 1941; Beyer, Cruz, & Martinez-Manautou, 1970)。相關文獻摘錄及圖片參見此頁面。
Lyons & McGinty, 1941 [圖片] 曾發現,雌激素單劑誘導了乳腺導管發育,而雌激素—孕酮(0.25–1 mg/天)複方引起了導管發育和輕度至“中度(fair)”的小葉/小泡發育;相反的是,雌激素—孕酮(4–8 mg/天,相當於最佳劑量的 4–8 倍)之複方引起了乳腺發育不良,體現在導管發育被抑制、小泡/小葉發育較輕微,最高劑量下的乳腺尺寸遠小於 ≤1 mg/天組別。他們總結稱,高劑量孕酮可抑制乳腺發育,導致發育相對不良。雖然論文中以“國際單位”(IU)作為孕酮劑量的單位,但 Pfeiffer (1943) 的綜述引用此文時,稱 1 IU 孕酮相當於 1 mg;據此,本文改用毫克來表示劑量。
Beyer, Cruz, & Martinez-Manautou, 1970 [圖片] 則發現,雌激素單藥引起了較佳的導管發育、未引起小泡/小葉發育,乳腺平均面積 376 mm2;雌激素和 CMA 0.5 mg/天覆方、雌激素和孕酮 2.5 mg/天覆方均引起了理想的導管和小泡/小葉發育,乳腺平均面積分別為 765 mm2、688 mm2。相反的是,雌激素和 CMA 2.5 mg/天(五倍於最佳劑量)導致導管發育大幅減弱、乳腺尺寸減小,但小泡/小葉發育明顯,乳腺平均面積 284 mm2。論文作者總結稱,孕激素在中等劑量下刺激乳腺增生,但在大劑量下抑制乳腺增生。
儘管上述研究表明高劑量孕激素可能阻滯人體乳房發育,但尚不能蓋棺定論。不同物種間經激素介導的乳腺發育可能不盡相同:即針對兔的研究結果可能無法推廣到人類,甚至是親緣關係更近的大鼠、豚鼠等其他物種(Bässler, 1970)。據筆者所知,迄今尚未有關於高劑量孕激素在其他動物(例如其它齧齒目物種或猴)身上阻滯乳腺發育的研究或報道。動物實驗所用劑量是否必然和人體孕激素治療相關也尚不清楚;這是因為,為了實現乳腺小泡/小葉的明顯發育,需要使孕酮升至妊娠水平(遠高於黃體期水平),而研究所用孕激素劑量比這還高一個數量級——如此暴露量放到人體身上也是極高的。但是,此等劑量仍可能和 CPA 作為抗雄激素製劑用於人類的情況相似,畢竟該用途下 CPA 劑量是相當高的(見下文)。在筆者印象中,尚無動物實驗報道過非妊娠水平的孕酮對乳腺發育有任何阻滯作用或其它副作用;這表明孕激素只有在高劑量下才顯現此類作用。最後還需説明,在以上動物實驗中,雌激素和孕激素治療是同時開始的,但在適當劑量下未能實現理想的、接近於妊娠狀態的乳腺發育;這表明對於人體,早期或初始的孕激素暴露可能對乳房發育不利。但要重申,不同物種間可能存在差異,還需人體臨牀研究來驗證這點。
臨牀文獻上以乳房發育可能不良為由而不推薦過早引入孕激素的相關記載
已有兒內分泌科方面的多份臨牀著述警告稱,順性別女孩和/或女性傾向跨性別者過早暴露於孕激素(例如青春期誘導治療),可能導致乳房發育不理想(Zacharin, 2000; Bondy et al., 2007; Colvin, Devineni, & Ashraf, 2014; Wierckx, Gooren, & T’Sjoen, 2014; Kaiser & Ho, 2015; Bauman, Novello, & Kreitzer, 2016; Gawlik et al., 2016; Randolph, 2018; Donaldson et al., 2019; Heath & Wynne, 2019a; Heath & Wynne, 2019b; Iwamoto et al., 2019; Crowley & Pitteloud, 2020; Naseem, Lokman, & Fitzgerald, 2021; Federici et al., 2022; Lucien et al., 2022; Rothman & Iwamoto, 2022)。以上信源的相關片段摘錄可參見此頁面。與此相關,對青春期推遲的女孩進行青春期誘導治療時,孕激素僅當以雌激素治療約 2–3 年之後才加入,此時一般認為乳房發育趨於完成。還有,對女性傾向跨性別青年進行青春期誘導治療時,通常不會加入孕激素。儘管青春期誘導方面的文獻記載和經過考驗的臨牀實踐已經汗牛充棟,但需要強調的是,其中有關過早引入孕激素可能會阻滯乳房發育的説法沒有任何臨牀證據支持,形同空中樓閣;甚至連它們是否基於口頭的臨牀經驗、而非單純臆想都不大清楚。由於近期有更多將孕激素用於順性別女孩以誘導青春期的研究開展,相關資料的缺位在未來有望得到彌補(例如 Rodari et al., 2023)。
Rodari 及其同行就青春期誘導治療的優化開展了研究,其中對 49 名患有性腺發育不全的順性別女孩給予雌激素治療,並於後續引入孕激素治療(例如 Rodari et al., 2022; Rodari, 2022; Rodari et al., 2023)。雌激素以透皮方式給予,劑量低,隨時間逐漸增加,以模擬正常青春期內偏低、且逐漸上升的雌二醇水平;孕激素僅於月經出血發生後引入。治療平均持續了 2.65 ± 1 年;初潮發生於治療 2.3 ± 1 年後;引入孕激素時間的中位數為治療後 2.22 年(IQR 1.56–2.87 年)。研究對象有 90% 的乳房發育至 Tanner 四期,但僅有 41% 發育至 Tanner 五期。乳房完全發育和雌二醇劑量的增加、以及在引入孕激素時的劑量呈強相關性。據研究者解釋,提及後者是出於孕激素暴露妨礙乳房發育的可能性。他們不支持在乳房發育不完全的情況下引入孕激素治療,並建議醫師應在乳房發育完成之前略微降低雌二醇劑量、推遲引入孕激素,而非初潮後即引入孕激素。以上資料雖饒有趣味,但需要注意這僅僅探究了相關性,沒有建立孕酮抑制乳房成熟的因果關係,且對此有很多解釋都適用。
用於乳房肥大的孕激素治療
有人認為,低孕酮水平可能是導致青春期乳房肥大的因素之一(Sun et al., 2018)。多份已發表的病例報告和系列病例研究都有孕激素用於治療青春期乳房肥大的記載(Sperling & Gold, 1973; Boyce, Hoffman, & Mathes, 1984; Ryan & Pernoll, 1985; Aritaki et al., 1992; Gliosci & Presutti, 1993; Sridhar & Jaya Sinha, 1995; Baker et al., 2001; Dancey et al., 2008; Bland, Howard, Romrell, 2009; Hoppe et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2018);其中,地屈孕酮、MPA 和 CPA 等孕激素被假定在乳房有抗雌激素作用,而被用以嘗試阻止或減緩乳房增長。在這批數目有限的病例中,治療有效性不盡相同。由於青春期乳房肥大可自愈(即乳房發育會逐漸自行停止),且研究方法存在侷限性(例如受試者數目很少、缺乏未經治療的對照組),故難以從這批報告得出可靠的結論。
近年有同一批研究者開展的多項研究,評價了不同種類的激素避孕藥對順性別青年女性所患有的乳房肥大的作用(Nuzzi et al., 2021; Nuzzi et al., 2022)。研究發現,孕激素單方避孕藥的使用和經手術切除的乳房組織的增加相關,且有統計顯著性(959.9 g/m2 對 735.9 g/m2 [+30%],p = 0.04);相對於接受手術、但不使用激素避孕藥的個體,臨牀症狀有所惡化(例如乳房疼痛;發生率 4.94,P = 0.005)(Nuzzi et al., 2021)。與此相反,雌激素—孕激素複方避孕藥的使用和經手術切除的乳房組織的減少有關,且有統計顯著性(639.5 g/m2 對 735.9 g/m2 [-13%],p = 0.003);但跟不使用激素者相比,臨牀症狀沒有任何差異(Nuzzi et al., 2022)。需要説明,孕激素單方避孕藥可抑制 HPG 軸,從而降低雌二醇水平;而複方避孕藥雖然也抑制 HPG 軸並減少雌二醇分泌,但同時補充的外源性雌激素彌補了雌激素信號的缺位;這種差異可能是二者對乳房肥大症狀的影響截然相反的原因所在。儘管 Nuzzi 及同行的研究結果饒有趣味,但曾有一封寄給編者的信討論其中一篇文章時,對研究方法和結果提出了質疑(Karp, 2022)。
Santen et al. (2024) 在一項有關患青少年乳房肥大的順性別女孩的系列病例研究中指出,乳房發育在開始後僅會持續幾年,那麼一定有某種停止信號被激活並阻止乳房進一步增長。他們猜測這種信號可能和細胞凋亡有關。他們還指出,在成年順性別女性的月經週期內,乳腺細胞隨卵泡期增生,隨黃體期凋亡;同時推測在黃體期發生的細胞凋亡可能阻斷了乳房進一步發育。考慮到孕酮於黃體期產生並可能介導所謂凋亡過程,這為孕激素治療乳房肥大這一用途提供了支持。但是據研究者所述,尚無資料表明患青少年乳房肥大的順性別女孩的乳房存在細胞凋亡。另外,作者的假設有一點需要反駁:對於從未進入月經週期、也不曾暴露於黃體期孕激素水平的人,經雌激素誘導的乳房增長會隨時間逐漸減緩、以至停止,這和正常順性別女孩一模一樣。這類人有很多,包括 CAIS 女性、女性傾向跨性別者,以及患有前列腺癌、接受雌激素治療的順性別男性。
17α-羥化酶/17,20-裂解酶不足所致的乳房發育不良
已有 17α-羥化酶/17,20-裂解酶不足的女孩接受雌激素治療後出現乳房發育不良的報告;在治療以前暴露於較高孕酮水平被猜測是此狀況的原因(Turan et al., 2009; Athanasoulia et al., 2013; Deeb et al., 2015; Çamtosun et al., 2017; Fernández-Cancio et al., 2017; Kardelen et al., 2018)。然而,這僅僅出於理論,目前尚無證據表明孕酮與乳房發育不良存在明確因果關係。
醋酸環丙孕酮用於女性傾向跨性別者時對乳房發育的影響
對於孕激素抑制乳房發育的可能性,作為抗雄激素製劑用於女性傾向跨性別者的 CPA 是尤其需要注意的。這是因為,CPA 不僅是一種抗雄激素製劑,還是一種強效孕激素;其為女性傾向跨性別者所用的劑量可導致非常高的孕激素暴露量(Aly, 2019)。在 2 mg/天劑量下,CPA 便足以產生和黃體期孕酮暴露量相當的孕激素效力(Aly, 2019; 維基百科);相比之下,用於女性傾向跨性別者的 CPA 劑量介於 10–100 mg/天之間(Aly, 2019)。即使以 12.5 mg/天計算,其孕激素效力也相當於黃體期孕酮暴露量的約 6.25 倍;25、50、100 mg/天則相當於後者的 12.5 倍、25 倍和 50 倍。這還沒有考慮以下事實:孕酮僅於黃體期被分泌,而 CPA 每天都要服用。CPA 所帶來的如此高的孕激素暴露相對於妊娠期間的水平有過之而無不及。直到近年,更低劑量的 CPA(如 ≤12.5 mg/天)才開始被運用於女性化激素治療。
有研究報道,處於青春期的青年女性傾向跨性別者給予 GnRH 激動劑以阻斷青春期、而後給予雌激素治療後,其乳房發育情況以主觀的臨牀體驗或 Tanner 分級評價,結果較佳(de Vries et al., 2010; Hannema et al., 2017);不過研究中沒有采取客觀的乳房測量手段。
相反的是,另一批非對照性研究對成年女性傾向跨性別者給予了雌激素和 CPA,其報道後者乳房小幅發育,體現在 Tanner 分級為 2–4 期(發育不完全)、罩杯較小、體積較小等(Kanhai et al., 1999; Sosa et al., 2003; Sosa et al., 2004; Wierckx et al., 2014; Fisher et al., 2016; Tack et al., 2017; de Blok et al., 2018; Reisman, Goldstein, & Safer, 2019; Meyer et al., 2020; de Blok et al., 2021);還有報道稱乳房尺寸小於順性別女性(Asscheman & Gooren, 1992; Kanhai et al., 1999)。有一項研究以處於青春期後期的女性傾向跨性別者為對象,也報道了乳房發育不良(Tack et al., 2017);但作者也坦白,其運用的雌激素劑量可能過低,導致雌二醇水平不足,從而可能干擾了研究結果(Tack et al., 2017)。無論如何,可以認為運用雌激素和 CPA 的女性傾向跨性別者的乳房發育普遍不良。
與之相對,由雌激素和無孕激素效力的抗雄激素製劑(螺內酯、比卡魯胺、GnRH 調節劑等)組成的其它激素治療方案,迄今均未得到充分研究,故難以比較各方案之間有何效果上的不同。
一項高質量研究對 69 名成年女性傾向跨性別者給予雌激素和 CPA,治療持續三年後,以三維全身掃描(Vectra XT)測量的乳房體積平均值為 100 mL,小於 A 罩杯(95% 置信區間:~75–125 mL;最大值 ~750 mL)(de Blok et al., 2021 [圖片])。研究中乳房改變隨時間逐漸放緩,提示乳房發育完成或近乎完成;大多數(71%)的受試者乳房小於 A 罩杯,但有小部分測得了 A 罩杯(9%)、B 罩杯(16%)、C 罩杯(3%)或 E 罩杯(1%)(de Blok et al., 2021 [圖片])。作為對比,另一研究用不同的三維全身掃描儀(Artec Eva 3D)對 378 名順性別女性進行掃描,測得乳房體積中位數 ~515 mL、平均值 ~650 mL(IQR ~310–850 mL;範圍 ~50–3,100 mL)(Coltman, Steele, & McGhee, 2017)。據此,可以認為以雌激素和 CPA 治療的成年女性傾向跨性別者的乳房會明顯小於順性別女性。但這裏必須強調一點:以上數據來自不同的臨牀研究,不能直接比較。還需註明,不同研究所測得的乳房體積可能有較大差異,即使測量方法相似亦然(例如都採用核磁共振成像)(例如 Sindi et al., 2019 [表格])。因此,為了公平對比,有必要開展進一步研究,用一致的測量手段對女性傾向跨性別者和順性別女性的乳房體積進行直接比較。
拋開上述不談,或許女性傾向跨性別者只是單純地普遍有不良的乳房發育,這不一定與 CPA 或孕激素暴露有關。事實上,在近期開展的一項研究中,先接受青春期抑制治療(估計採用 GnRH 激動劑)、後接受雌激素治療的女性傾向跨性別者,也和成人一樣有不良的乳房發育(Boogers et al., 2022; 參照前述 de Blok et al., 2021);其中以激素治療 4.2 年後,以三維全身掃描的方式測得的乳房體積平均值為 114 mL(IQR 58–203 mL),小於 A 罩杯(Boogers et al., 2022)。研究者和前述對象為成年女性傾向跨性別者的高質量研究的開展者是同一羣人,故兩項研究可能都採用了一致的三維全身掃描方法(de Blok et al., 2021)。
目前,對 CPA 和其它抗雄激素製劑用於女性傾向跨性別者後的乳房發育情況進行直接比較的研究資料還是空缺的;因此,不能肯定上述結果是否侷限於 CPA,也不能肯定其是否適用於孕激素效力相對較弱的其它抗雄激素製劑。目前,Ada Cheung 及同行正於澳大利亞開展一項 RCT,將雌二醇—螺內酯複方、雌二醇—CPA 複方用於女性傾向跨性別者時的乳房發育情況進行對比;考慮到螺內酯有微弱的、不具備臨牀顯著性的孕激素效力,該研究有望為這個問題提供更多見解(Aly, 2018b; 維基百科; 參見後記一)。
有關用於女性傾向跨性別者的孕激素治療及其乳房發育的一些補充看法
討論孕激素和乳房發育的傳言
有不少女性傾向跨性別者自發報道,在激素治療中加入的孕激素改善了其乳房發育。同時其他一些人則自發報道,孕激素對乳房發育沒有產生裨益。必須注意,一般而言,自發報告可信度不足,作為醫學證據的強度是很低的;這是因為主觀的觀察和因果推論往往會出錯。人們對事物的感知可能會有誤,尤其是對於身體改變這樣緩慢的過程;身體改變亦可能是巧合以及與人無關的干擾因素導致的,而不是某人自身的因果關係所致。對於孕激素和乳房發育這方面,潛在的干擾因素包括:(1) 乳房發育仍受雌激素本身介導而繼續進行;(2) 孕激素引起乳房液體瀦留、血流量增加、可逆的小泡/小葉發育,從而短暫引起乳房增大。以上因素可能造成誤導,助推“孕激素改善乳房發育”這類自發報告的產生。為了準確地評價孕激素對乳房發育的作用,還需開展更多臨牀研究,其中設計要嚴謹、要有對照、要有可靠的客觀測量手段、跟蹤期要長,最後還要停用孕激素以便控制可逆結局。
口服孕酮的臨牀侷限性
口服孕酮所引起的孕酮水平非常低,即使在高劑量下,其孕激素效力也很弱(Aly, 2018a; 維基百科)。較低的孕酮水平可能不足以在乳房等部位起到生理性的孕激素作用。特別地,口服孕酮還會引起較強的神經甾體作用:其被代謝為別孕烷醇酮等神經活性代謝物,而後者可產生形如酒精的中樞神經抑制作用、情緒波動等明顯副作用(Aly, 2018b; 維基百科; 維基百科)。此類副作用和劑量正相關,劑量越高、副作用越強。為避免以上問題,可改用非口服途徑的孕酮或人工孕激素,例如直腸栓劑或注射劑(Aly, 2018a; Aly, 2018b)。
孕激素的耐受性和安全性
孕激素存在一系列耐受性和安全性問題(Aly, 2018b);例如,情緒惡化、乳腺癌、血栓、心血管疾病、良性的腦腫瘤(如泌乳素瘤和腦膜瘤),以及伴有不良反應的脱靶效應(如雄激素活性、糖皮質激素活性),等等(Aly, 2018b)。特別地,CPA 在高劑量下有明顯的嚴重肝毒性風險(Aly, 2018b)。諸孕激素風險不一,取決於種類和劑量,但都已知有一定的風險,即使是生物同質的孕酮也不例外。正是因為孕激素的這些風險,以及缺乏孕激素是否有益於女性化、情緒和健康的證據,才有了對孕激素用於女性傾向跨性別者的疑慮和猶豫(Aly, 2018b)。不過,順性別女性體內天然地會產生孕酮,而且孕激素的絕對風險是很低的(Aly, 2018b)。為儘量減小孕激素風險,可採取的辦法有:在較短年限(個位數)以內服用;以可達到預期療效的最低劑量服用;採用藥理特性更温和的品種(Aly, 2018a; Aly, 2018b)。
後記
後記一:Angus et al. (2023–2024)
上文曾報道 Ada Cheung 及同行正開展一項 RCT,其中將雌二醇—螺內酯複方、雌二醇—CPA 複方用於女性傾向跨性別者時的乳房發育情況進行對比;考慮到螺內酯有微弱的、不具備臨牀顯著性的孕激素效力,該研究有望為這個問題提供更多見解。該研究現已被髮表於兩份會議紀要,而期刊文章已進入發表流程 *:
- Angus, L. M., Leemaqz, S., Zajac, J. D., & Cheung, A. S. (November 2023). A randomised controlled trial of spironolactone versus cyproterone in trans people commencing estradiol. AusPATH 2023 Symposium. [URL] [PDF] [Trans Health Research 博客文章]
- Angus, L. M., Leemaqz, S. Y., Zajac, J. D., & Cheung, A. S. (November 2023). The effect of cyproterone and spironolactone on breast development in transgender women: a randomised controlled trial. ESA/SRB/ENSA 2023 ASM 26-29 November, Brisbane, 54–55 (abstract no. 132). [URL] [PDF] [摘要全文] [Trans Health Research 博客文章]
* 譯者注: 期刊文章現已在線公開,摘錄如下:
- Angus, L. M., Leemaqz, S. Y., Kasielska-Trojan, A. K., Mikołajczyk, M., Doery, J. C., Zajac, J. D., & Cheung, A. S. (2024). Effect of spironolactone and cyproterone acetate on breast growth in transgender people: a randomized clinical trial. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, dgae650. [DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgae650]
為準確表述研究結果,以下數據以最終期刊文章為準,做了相應改動;在期刊文章中沒有體現的數據未改動。
研究對象是 55 名女性傾向跨性別者,其中 27 人給予雌二醇和螺內酯 100 mg/天,28 人給予雌二醇和 CPA 12.5 mg/天;激素治療——至少到最近一次跟蹤為止——持續了六個月。對乳房發育的測量手段有乳房—下胸圍差(主要結局),以及乳房體積測算(次要結局)。
螺內酯組和 CPA 組的乳房—下胸圍差(平均值 ± 標準差)分別為 8.2 ± 2.7 cm 和 9.2 ± 3.0 cm,差距無統計顯著性(p = 0.6);經測算的乳房體積(平均值 ± 標準差)分別為 158.5 ± 110.0 mL 和 190.2 ± 158.6 mL,差距無統計顯著性(p = 0.3)。經測算的乳房體積在個體間有較大差異,介乎 20–788 mL 不等。研究結果還顯示,CPA 引起的體脂肪增幅和女性型脂肪分佈佔比較螺內酯更大;雌二醇水平基本相當;總睾酮水平(平均值 ± 標準差),螺內酯組 4.15 ± 5.38 nmol/L(119.7 ± 155.2 ng/dL),CPA 組 1.48 ± 3.45 nmol/L(42.7 ± 99.5 ng/dL),二者差異無 統計顯著性(p = 0.07)。
研究者總結稱,研究中螺內酯組和 CPA 組的乳房發育沒有差異;建議在選擇抗雄激素製劑時,尊重患者和醫師意願、並考慮相關副作用,實施一人一方;未來應開展進一步研究來優化女性傾向跨性別者的乳房發育。
研究中以在線免費工具 BreastIdea Volume Estimator 來計算乳房體積;僅需提交二維照片即可測算(Mikołajczyk, Kasielska-Trojan, & Antoszewski, 2019; Kasielska-Trojan, Mikołajczyk, & Antoszewski, 2020)。該工具已在順性別女性和順性別男性當中進行驗證(Mikołajczyk, Kasielska-Trojan, & Antoszewski, 2019; Kasielska-Trojan, Mikołajczyk, & Antoszewski, 2020)。此外,Cheung、Angus 以及包括該工具的一部分開發者在內的其他同行曾共同開展一項研究,驗證工具對順性別男性和女性傾向跨性別者的有效性,成果於 2022 年發表於以下會議摘要:
- Angus, L., Mikolajczyk, M., Cheung, A., Zajac, J., Antoszewski, B., & Kasielska-Trojan, A. (2022). Estimation of breast volume in transgender women using 2D photography: validation of the BreastIdea Volume Estimator in men and transgender women. ESA/SRB/APEG/NZSE ASM 2022, November 13-16, Christchurch, Abstracts and Programme, 127–127 (abstract no. 279). [URL] [PDF] [摘要全文]
BreastIdea 開發者開展的研究用該工具測算了順性別女性乳房體積,其結果可與上述 Cheung、Angus 及同行針對女性傾向跨性別者的測算結果相互對比。BreastIdea 開發者報道的乳房體積(平均值 ± 標準差)是:乳房正常的順性別女性(n=30)283 ± 144 mL,患有乳房肥大或巨乳症的順性別女性(n=35)888 ± 277 mL(Kasielska-Trojan, Zawadzki, & Antoszewski, 2022);另一項研究報道,順性別女性 272 ± 150 mL,範圍 99–694 mL(Kasielska-Trojan, Mikołajczyk, & Antoszewski, 2020)。
BreastIdea 這個乳房體積測算工具看似有趣且實用,實則有其侷限性,例如其分辨率和精度均遠遜於 Artec Eva 和 Vectra XT 等三維掃描儀(Mikołajczyk, Kasielska-Trojan, & Antoszewski, 2019)。Artec 和 Vectra 掃描儀已在其他研究中被用於測量女性傾向跨性別者經激素治療後的乳房發育情況(de Blok et al., 2021; Boogers et al., 2022; Dijkman et al., 2023a; Dijkman et al., 2023b; Lopez et al., 2023)。精度問題或許正是 BreastIdea 所測得的順性別女性、女性傾向跨性別者乳房體積和其它研究中以三維掃描儀測量的結果大相迥異的原因所在。
另一方面,乳房—下胸圍差作為衡量女性傾向跨性別者乳房發育的指標也存在侷限性:例如,其無法反映仍在持續增長的乳房體積(de Blok et al., 2021)。
除了以上乳房測量手段以外,Lachlan Angus 及同行的 RCT 還存在以下侷限性:跟蹤時長僅有六個月;螺內酯和 CPA 組的睾酮水平不一致;樣本規模有限。需要説明,螺內酯治療組中的睾酮水平未得到完全抑制,而這部分剩餘的睾酮可阻斷雌激素介導的乳房發育,從而使發育效果減弱。有限的樣本規模可能是導致兩個治療組之間乳房發育情況的數值差異不具備統計顯著性的原因之一。無論如何,從 Angus 及同行的研究結果可以看出,至少在六個月的激素治療中,相比於螺內酯,具有強孕激素效力的 CPA 既不會促進、也不會阻滯乳房發育。這項 RCT 將來貌似還會繼續開展,跟蹤期和激素治療時長都有望得到延伸。
後記二:Flamant, Vervalcke, & T’Sjoen (2023) 以及 Yang et al. (2024)
就女性傾向跨性別者暴露於孕激素(具體而言是 CPA)是否影響乳房發育這個話題,近期開展的兩項研究可提供更多見解:
- Flamant, T., Vervalcke, J., & T’Sjoen, G. (November 2023). Dose Reduction of Cyproterone Acetate in Trans Women and the Effect on Patient-reported Outcomes: Results from the ENIGI Study. Endocrine Abstracts, 97 [Belgian Endocrine Society 2023], 5–5 (abstract no. 007). [URL] [PDF]
- Yang, W., Hong, T., Chang, X., Han, M., Gao, H., Pan, B., Zhao, Z., & Liu, Y. (2024). The efficacy of and user satisfaction with different antiandrogens in Chinese transgender women. International Journal of Transgender Health, advance online publication. [DOI:10.1080/26895269.2024.2323514]
——【譯者注】 部分作者經查證分別為:洪天配(共同第一作者)、常旭、高洪偉、潘柏林、趙振民、劉燁。
第一項,即 Flamant, Vervalcke, & T’Sjoen (2023) 的研究於比利時根特大學的診所開展,將低劑量(10–12.5 mg/天)和高劑量(25–50 mg/天)的 CPA 用於 72 名女性傾向跨性別者,並比較其臨牀結局。兩組的睾酮抑制效果一致。治療一年後,兩組之間以體象量表評價的乳房發育滿意度的差異無統計顯著性(p = 0.078);但是,P 值非常接近於 統計顯著性閾值(0.05 以下——譯者注)。論文沒有顯示哪一組的滿意度得分更高。無論如何,據研究者稱,低劑量 CPA 治療組的乳房發育滿意度並“不遜於”高劑量 CPA,換言之,可能高於後者。上述結果表明,高劑量 CPA 並不會比低劑量有更強的乳房發育阻滯作用,但孕激素活性依然極高。
另一項,即 Yang et al. (2024) 的回顧性研究於中國北京大學第三醫院開展,其中比較了雌二醇—螺內酯複方(n=43)、雌二醇—CPA 複方(n=53)用於女性傾向跨性別者的臨牀結局。螺內酯組的睾酮水平遠高於 CPA 組(374 ng/dL 對 20 ng/dL,或 13.0 nmol/L 對 0.7 nmol/L;P < 0.001);螺內酯組的跟蹤期較 CPA 組偏短(中位數分別是 12 個月和 18 個月)。在以視覺模擬量表(VAS)評價的乳房發育滿意度方面,螺內酯組、CPA 組的得分中位數分別是 6.0(IQR 4.0–7.0)和 6.0(IQR 4.0–7.0),差別無統計顯著性。至於 VAS 其它項目的評價上,CPA 組在多個項目的得分都高於螺內酯組,包括面部女性化、睾丸萎縮、勃起減少等;CPA 組的綜合滿意度得分也更高。上述結果表明,螺內酯和 CPA 用於女性傾向跨性別者時,乳房發育情況相似,這與 Lachlan Angus 及同行的 RCT 結果一致;但在睾酮水平和其它臨牀結局上都存在差異。
Flamant, Vervalcke, & T’Sjoen (2023) 以及 Yang et al. (2024) 的研究都存在重大侷限性:即採用主觀的自評量表、而非客觀的物理測量手段來評價乳房發育。
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譯文修訂記錄
時間 | 備註 |
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2023 年 11 月 2 日 | 初次翻譯。 |
2025 年 4 月 8 日 | 重新翻譯了全文。 |